The first experiment aimed at practicing the application of the identified design strategy and principles. This was done on a Mackintosh chair, a furniture masterpiece, however rendered undesirable, and currently in category 1.

The second, is a category 2(a) product, i.e., a dinning set that is desirable and has the reflective and emotional elements, but lacked visceral elements.

The third, is a category 1 product, i.e., furniture that is undesirable and had no visceral, behavioural and reflective elements.

This chair was found in a junk of a second-hand furniture shop. The owner remains unknown, however, the chair was actually designed by a famous Scottish architect, Charles Rennie [2]. Although it was broken, people may still recognise its initial renowned design (Figure 2).

Charles Rennie Mackintosh

Taking into account the informed presumption for this category of the product (1) the designer was able to explain that the chair was discarded because of its loss of behavioural usefulness, which also resulted in them being viscerally low standard (or vice versa). However, the most important element is that the chair had lost the emotional importance from its previous user.

For this product the developments were undertaken via a computer simulation, with the intention of actualization once the design was deemed suitable. Keeping in line with the chosen design principle’s, the transformation of the chair was made with little intervention to preserve the chair’s form that showed the essence of remains Mackintosh’s design. Ching and Binggeli [13] suggested neutralized colour schemes as the most flexible one. Therefore, the development process started through refinishing the whole chair with white paint, and accentuating the broken backrest with gold brass color. This was done intentionally to highlight the imperfection of the chair, however the golden colour made this aspect pleasing to the eye (visceral level) (Figure 3).

Drawing of the Makintosh’s chair

Whilst the defects in the chair were exposed and probably behaviouraly the chair might also be considered less comfortable to use, the identity of a Mackintosh’s design (reflective design) was kept intact. The designer considered the real value of this chair not in its comfort of use (behavioural design) and its visual perfection (visual design), but in it being a masterpiece. However, the experiments could not ascertain if a user would have given the same importance to the chair’s historical identity over comfort.

User evaluation for this chair was not possible within the time frame of this research. Nevertheless, it was highly acclaimed as a concept by the experts in Art (expert 3) and communication design (expert 4). The expert confirmed that the concept had the potential of re-popularising what was once famous and celebrated furniture, and gave it a second chance for usability.

The Kansei elements were also used to test if they were fit for the purpose of evaluation. The experts acclaimed the product highly on the basis of looks. However, suggested that a physical prototype would be a better medium to judge the elements of touch, sound and the overall feel of the product. The experts also agreed that the design principles were suitable to be carried out on all the product experiments, as these had a simple reoccurring message, of celebrating damage and decay.

Linda and her family had been using their dining furniture set for over 20 years. They grew up with this table and this table helped carved the family memories every time they gathered together while having a family dinner. The dining set had never been replaced since the day the family bought it. This set of furniture would always keep the memory of Linda’s family and her childhood life. However, ageing made some of the material gradually weaken. The wood planks of the chair backrest were not able to hold the load – they were starting to detach one by one, hence, the family could no longer use the chairs because it was dangerous to lean on. Also, the glass top of the table was cracked because of bearing a heavy burden. The family tried to cover the large crack by placing a tablecloth over the table. Linda and her family loved their dining set and they were willing to keep this table to the limit of its capability in accommodating the family activities (Figure 4).

The broken family dinner table

The owner had a deep emotional importance attached to this dining set, and did not consider its poor usability and physical defects as inconvenience, hence the product’s reflective elements were intact. However, Linda and her family had been avoiding using the chair because of the detached backrest, which made the chair unusable due to safety reasons, also the cracked glass made the table viscerally week.

Due to the emotional importance attached to the product, the challenge was to ascertain that the reparation does not transform the chair into something unfamiliar. Special consideration had to be given to preserve the original form and material of the furniture set that contained valuable memory and personality.

For the chair the suggested design was to reconstruct the backrest by tying a rope as cordage to allow people to sit and lean comfortably (behavioural design). Again, the rigging rope was accentuated with gold colour to enhance its craftsmanship, and keep it in line with the agreed colour scheme (visceral design).

The design tried to cherish the crack and provoke a new perspective to the family by repainting the table in white and replacing the cracked glass with brass material (Figure 5). It showed contrast at a visceral level, enhancing the shape of the crack rather than hiding it. Brass could create a beautiful patina in its ageing process that the family could cherish through its lifetime.

Drawings for the table reparation

A user participant, who owned the “Childhood Chair” highlighted the quality of the suggested design, specifically in the method of refurbishing without too many interventions, consequently erasing the personality of the furniture. Based on the Kansei principles, the owner explained, “the colour makes the dining set more valuable than before. The process of reconstruction also does not change the old set, which means it does not erase my childhood memory.” She rated the design concept high on look, touch, and colour based on the sample material, which was shown to her. However, evaluation on the overall good feeling could not be made at that point in time, as the product was not completed.

In maintaining the owner’s childhood memory and her valuable emotional attachment, the original material of the chair and table was also preserved; only the missing parts were replaced with a new and distinctive material and colour to celebrate its imperfection. ” For her, decay and broken part, as something that is “less valuable” could actually be an opportunity to become something that was “more valuable” – it was not something to be hidden, but to be celebrated.

A discarded china cabinet was found from the junk of a second-hand furniture shop in Newcastle. The two missing side glasses made the cabinet less usable (behavioural level). Defects and scratches were found on many edges and this made it less desirable at a visceral level (Figure 6).

Discarded China cabinet

Therefore, keeping in mind the informed presumptions the designer was able to explain that the product had no associated emotional importance, and it also did not have the visceral appeal nor did it have the behavioural elements left in it. Hence, the experiments had to give back the cabinet its functionality (behavioural elements), its visceral element, and as a result allow it to find a new meaning with a new user. Many potential users for the cabinet were involved throughout the experimentation, and also evaluated the outcome at the end.

As base colour, the overall main body of the furniture was painted in white, to represent a blank canvas for people to repaint it in future. The broken and missing parts of the furniture needed to stand out and change what people perceived as ‘broken’, undesired, into something that is ‘unbroken’, cherished and celebrated (Figure 7).

White base colour to provide a blank canvas

Defects and scratches were highlighted by contrasting gold colour to embrace its imperfection, creating a striking visual design, differentiating the new from the intact and ‘undamaged’ parts of the furniture’s body.

The experience of use plays important role in enhancing a products behavioural elements, particularly in the case of furniture design. Discarded furniture should be designed and adapted with a good behavioural design for people to reuse them (purposefully). A successful behavioural design is when the discarded furniture can be reused well than how originally it was intended.

Initially, fabric materials replaced the two missing sides glasses. However, this didn’t allow the users to show off the displayed objects inside the cabinet. Hence, another option was chosen. A set of discarded wooden beads were found from the junk of second-hand furniture shop, they were used as an alternative to cover the gap providing a new look to the cabinet, but at the same time maintaining the original purpose of the cabinet (Figure 8).

Golden beads as enhancement design

The redesigned cabinet addressed the behavioural and visceral level of emotional design, however the long-term value could only be achieved through redesigning and reconstructing the perception of people towards products on a reflective level. Design on reflective level has a capability to deliver a message and provoke and engaged people to see discarded furniture in a different way, contemplate, rediscover value and recreate long-term empathy towards discarded products.

The design tried to deliver a message to potential users; the message was to celebrate the decaying process of the cabinet, find beauty in imperfection and impermanence, and see what is right in what is wrong. In simple words, the value of products does not transpire from a set of special objects, but it is determined by people’s perception, experience, and attitude in accepting the natural change of products – both in positive or negative changes.

Through design interventions, as seen in the above-mentioned experiments, empathy, compassion, and positive changes of perception can be instilled, and reaction towards ‘less valuable’ product can be changed. Beyond usability and physical look, the cabinet was also seen as an object representing the experiences of use, and a potential user was seen to learn to embrace and admire the imperfections of this product.

The evaluation confirmed that the refurbished China cabinet conformed to the Kansei elements of look, touch, and sound. Additionally, the overall feel of the product was also highly acclaimed by the potential user. As a result of the design the emotional attachment, the user (in this case the person who bought the product) rated the refurbished cabinet high, specifically due to the idea of embracing the defects with gold, as subjugated through the Wabi Sabi approach.