The Design Manual is the comprehensive reference for HTRI’s thermal design recommendations for all types of heat exchangers. It summarizes calculation methods in HTRI software, provides design recommendations, and offers practical design tips. Topics covered include basic methods for single-phase pressure drop and heat transfer, condensation, boiling, two-phase flow, fouling, flow-induced vibration, and design guidelines for shell-and-tube, air-cooled, and non-tubular exchangers. The Design Manual provides the basis for understanding HTRI software results and contains references to research reports for detailed study.

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A1 Purpose and organization

A1.1 General description

A1.2 Suggested uses

A1.3 Organization

A2 Unit conversions

A2.1 Definitions

A2.2 Conventions

B1 Principles of heat transfer

B1.1 Principles of heat transfer processes

B1.1.1 Conduction B1.1.2 Convection B1.1.3 Radiation B1.1.4 Relevant dimensionless numbers

B1.2 Overall heat transfer coefficient and supporting calculations

B1.2.1 Driving force and resistance concept B1.2.2 Derivation of overall heat transfer coefficient, U B1.2.3 Derivation of tube wall temperature, Tw B1.2.4 Average bulk temperature

B1.3 Mean temperature difference

B1.3.1 Exact and integrated solution B1.3.2 Flow arrangements B1.3.3 Graphical solutions B1.3.4 Mean temperature difference graphs for shell-and-tube exchangers B1.3.5 Mean temperature difference graphs for crossflow arrangements B1.3.6 Effective overall mean temperature difference 

B1.4 Nomenclature

B2 Single-phase pressure drop

B2.1 Pressure drop inside conduits of constant cross section

B2.1.1 Flow inside tubes B2.1.2 Flow inside tubes with twisted tape inserts B2.1.3 Flow inside tubes with internal fins B2.1.4 In annuli B2.1.5 Axial flow in tube bundles with rod-type tube supports

B2.2 Pressure drop across plain tube banks

B2.2.1 Basic geometry B2.2.2 Isothermal flow B2.2.3 Nonisothermal flow B2.2.4 Calculated example, plain tubes

B2.3 Pressure drop across low-finned tube banks

B2.3.1 Basic geometry B2.3.2 Friction factor correction B2.3.3 Nonisothermal correction B2.3.4 Pressure drop B2.3.5 Calculated example, low-finned tubes, 748 fins/m (19 fins/in.)

B2.4 Pressure drop across high-finned tube banks

B2.4.1 Definitions and limitations B2.4.2 Friction factor definition B2.4.3 General correlation B2.4.4 Nonequilateral staggered layouts B2.4.5 Nonsquare inline layouts B2.4.6 Special finned tubes B2.4.7 ESCOA correlations for pressure drop

B2.5 Pressure drop in plate-and-frame exchangers

B2.5.1 Typical plate-and-frame configuration B2.5.2 Pressure drop estimation method

B2.6 Pressure drop in spiral plate heat exchangers

B2.6.1 Pressure drop estimation method B2.6.2 Range of data and accuracy

B2.7 Pressure drop in bends

B2.7.1 Secondary flow B2.7.2 Classification of bends B2.7.3 Loss coefficient methods

B2.8 Pressure drop across tube bundles with continuous fins

B2.8.1 Pressure drop method for vapors B2.8.2 Pressure drop estimation method for liquids

B2.9 Pressure drop in plate-fin heat exchangers

B2.9.1 Geometry B2.9.2 Plain fins B2.9.3 Perforated fins B2.9.4 Serrated fins B2.9.5 Wavy fins B2.9.6 Limits 

B2.10 Pressure drop and maldistribution of liquids in air-cooler headers

B2.10.1 Pressure drop B2.10.2 Maldistribution

B2.11 Nomenclature

B3 Single-phase heat transfer

B3.1 Heat transfer inside conduits of constant cross section

B3.1.1 Inside plain tubes B3.1.2 Inside tubes with twisted tape inserts B3.1.3 Inside tubes with internal fins B3.1.4 In annuli B3.1.5 Axial flow in tube bundles without baffles B3.1.6 Axial flow in tube bundles with rod-type tube supports

B3.2 Heat transfer, plain tube banks

B3.2.1 Basic correlation B3.2.2 Curve fit equation for (ji)10 B3.2.3 Tuberow correction B3.2.4 Alternative form for turbulent flow B3.2.5 Baffled heat exchanger window heat transfer B3.2.6 Calculated example, plain tubes B3.2.7 Thermal stratification of viscous flows

B3.3 Heat transfer, low-finned tube banks

B3.3.1 Heat transfer, j-factor correlation B3.3.2 Heat transfer, alternate j-factor correlation B3.3.3 Viscosity and tuberow correction terms B3.3.4 j-Factor correction for other tube layouts B3.3.5 Fin efficiency

B3.4 Heat transfer, high-finned tube banks

B3.4.1 Definitions and limitations B3.4.2 Area calculations B3.4.3 Colburn j-factor definition B3.4.4 Smooth-finned tubes in staggered layouts B3.4.5 Segmented-finned tubes in staggered layouts B3.4.6 Finned tubes in inline layouts B3.4.7 Special finned tubes B3.4.8 Fin efficiency B3.4.9 Fin bond resistance B3.4.10 ESCOA correlations for heat transfer

B3.5 Heat transfer in plate-and-frame exchangers

B3.5.1 General information B3.5.2 Typical plate-and-frame configuration B3.5.3 Heat transfer estimation model B3.5.4 Example calculation, waste heat recovery plate heat exchanger B3.5.5 Effect of flow distribution on heat transfer

B3.6 Heat transfer in spiral plate heat exchangers

B3.6.1 Heat transfer estimation method B3.6.2 Range of data and accuracy

B3.7 Heat transfer across tube bundles with continuous fins

B3.7.1 Heat transfer method for vapors B3.7.2 Heat transfer method for liquids

B3.8 Heat transfer in plate-fin heat exchangers

B3.8.1 Plain fins B3.8.2 Perforated fins B3.8.3 Serrated fins B3.8.4 Wavy fins B3.8.5 Limits and corrections B3.8.6 Fin efficiency 

B3.9 Nomenclature

B4 Condensation

B4.1 Principles of condensation

B4.1.1 Filmwise condensation B4.1.2 Flow regimes B4.1.3 Condensate film heat transfer coefficients B4.1.4 Vapor-phase heat transfer coefficient B4.1.5 Desuperheating B4.1.6 Subcooling B4.1.7 Mean temperature difference B4.1.8 Incrementation and short-cut procedures

B4.2 Condensation of pure vapors inside vertical tubes

B4.2.1 Gravity-controlled flow B4.2.2 Shear-controlled flow B4.2.3 Annular-mist flow B4.2.4 Heat transfer coefficient selection

B4.3 Condensation of pure vapors inside horizontal tubes

B4.3.1 Shear-controlled flow, annular pattern B4.3.2 Shear-controlled flow, mist pattern B4.3.3 Gravity-controlled flow, wavy and stratified patterns B4.3.4 Slug and plug flow patterns B4.3.5 Transition between annular and wavy-stratified flow B4.3.6 Transition between shear- and gravity-controlled flow B4.3.7 Heat transfer coefficient selection

B4.4 Condensation of pure vapors outside horizontal plain tube bundles

B4.4.1 Gravity-controlled flow B4.4.2 Shear-controlled flow B4.4.3 Intermittent flow B4.4.4 Heat transfer coefficient selection

B4.5 Condensation of pure vapors outside baffled vertical plain tube bundles

B4.5.1 Flow regime considerations B4.5.2 Gravity-controlled flow B4.5.3 Shear-controlled flow

B4.6 Condensation of mixed vapors and vapor-gas mixtures

B4.6.1 Theory B4.6.2 Resistance Proration Method B4.6.3 Composition Profile Method B4.6.4 Methods for tubeside condensation B4.6.5 Methods for shellside condensation

B4.7 Condensation on finned tubes in horizontal tube bundles

B4.7.1 Gravity-controlled flow B4.7.2 Shear-controlled flow B4.7.3 Heat transfer coefficient selection B4.7.4 Fin efficiency B4.7.5 Mixtures and non-condensables B4.7.6 Rose-Briggs theoretical finned tube method

B4.8 Subcooling

B4.8.1 Vertical condensers B4.8.2 Horizontal condensers

B4.9 Desuperheating

B4.9.1 Dry-wall desuperheating B4.9.2 Wet-wall desuperheating B4.9.3 Wall temperature estimation

B4.10 Condensation of immiscible mixtures

B4.10.1 Heat transfer method B4.10.2 Heat transfer calculation procedures B4.10.3 Recommended methods

B4.11 Direct contact heat transfer

B4.11.1 Methods used for gas coolers B4.11.2 Direct contact condensers B4.11.3 Application of theoretical studies

B4.12 Fogging condensation

B4.12.1 Fogging principles B4.12.2 Determination of supersaturation B4.12.3 Critical supersaturation

B4.13 Reflux condensation

B4.13.1 Tubeside reflux condensation B4.13.2 Shellside reflux condensation

B4.14 Enhanced condensation

B4.14.1 Enhanced condensation using tubeside inserts B4.14.2 Condensation in micro-finned tubes

B4.15 Dehumidification of gases flowing outside high-finned tube bundles

B4.15.1 Mass Transfer Method B4.15.2 Simplified RPM B4.15.3 ARI Method

B4.16 Condensation heat transfer coefficient in plate-and-frame exchangers

B4.16.1 Condensation of pure components B4.16.2 Condensation of mixtures

B4.17 Condensation heat transfer in plate-fin heat exchangers

B4.17.1 General correlations B4.17.2 Upflow/horizontal condensation B4.17.3 Downflow condensation 

B5 Boiling

B5.1 Boiling process principles

B5.1.1 Introduction B5.1.2 Pool boiling B5.1.3 Flow boiling B5.1.4 Onset of nucleate boiling

B5.2 Nucleate boiling outside single horizontal tubes

B5.2.1 Maximum heat flux, q1 max B5.2.2 Nucleate boiling coefficient, hnb B5.2.3 Natural convection heat transfer coefficient, hnc

B5.3 Flow boiling inside tubes

B5.3.1 Maximum heat flux and vapor fraction B5.3.2 Wet-wall heat transfer methods B5.3.3 Dry-wall heat transfer methods B5.3.4 Twisted tape inserts B5.3.5 Microfin tubes

B5.4 Flow boiling outside tube bundles

B5.4.1 Flow boiling outside horizontal tube bundles B5.4.2 Axial flow boiling outside tube bundles without baffles B5.4.3 Enhanced boiling surfaces

B5.5 Boiling with high vapor-phase resistance

B5.5.1 Introduction B5.5.2 Background B5.5.3 Recommended relations

B5.6 Film and transition boiling outside single horizontal tubes

B5.6.1 Film boiling minimum heat flux, qmin B5.6.2 Minimum temperature difference for fully developed film boiling, DTq min B5.6.3 Film boiling heat transfer coefficient, hfb B5.6.4 Transition boiling heat transfer coefficient, htb

B5.7 Falling film evaporation inside vertical tubes

B5.7.1 Introduction B5.7.2 General configuration B5.7.3 Liquid distribution B5.7.4 Tubeside heat transfer coefficients B5.7.5 Film breakdown B5.7.6 Flooding

B5.8 Flow boiling heat transfer coefficient in plate-and-frame exchangers

B5.8.1 Wet-wall heat transfer methods B5.8.2 Partial dry-wall method

B5.9 Flow boiling heat transfer in plate-fin heat exchangers

B5.9.1 Convective boiling B5.9.2 Nucleate boiling

B6 Two-phase flow

B6.1 Basic relationships

B6.1.1 Homogeneous flow model B6.1.2 Separated flow model

B6.2 Flow regimes

B6.2.1 Horizontal flow B6.2.2 Vertical flow

B6.3 Flow limitations

B6.3.1 Flooding B6.3.2 Entrainment B6.3.3 Critical flow B6.3.4 Example calculation

B6.4 Pressure drop

B6.4.1 General equation B6.4.2 Static head B6.4.3 Momentum B6.4.4 Friction B6.4.5 Pressure drop across restrictions B6.4.6 Boiling in plate-and-frame exchangers B6.4.7 Pressure drop in bends B6.4.8 Pressure drop in plate-fin exchangers

B6.5 Heat transfer

B6.5.1 Convective heat transfer coefficient for liquid film B6.5.2 Effects of boiling and condensing B6.5.3 Effects of vapor-phase resistance B6.5.4 Feed-effluent exchangers

B6.6 Liquid-liquid two-phase systems

B6.6.1 Effective viscosity of immiscible liquid-liquid emulsions B6.6.2 Heat transfer and pressure drop with immiscible liquid phases

B6.7 Solid-liquid two-phase systems

B6.7.1 General recommendations B6.7.2 Heat transfer and pressure drop calculations B6.7.3 Equipment selection

B6.8 Bitumen-water slurries

B6.8.1 Introduction B6.8.2 General recommendations B6.8.3 Pressure drop calculations B6.8.4 Heat transfer calculations

B7 Thermal radiation

B7.1 Fundamentals of thermal radiation

B7.1.1 Properties of electromagnetic waves B7.1.2 Radiation heat fluxes B7.1.3 Radiation intensity

B7.2 Black-body Radiation

B7.2.1 Planck distribution B7.2.2 Stefan-Boltzmann law

B7.3 Properties of real surfaces

B7.3.1 Emission, absorption, reflection, and transmission B7.3.2 Gray surfaces

B7.4 Radiation exchange

B7.4.1 View factor B7.4.2 Radiation exchange between black bodies B7.4.3 Radiation exchange in gray enclosures

B7.5 Radiation characteristics of gases

B7.5.1 Mean beam length B7.5.2 Emissivity and absorptivity B7.5.3 Examples

B7.6 Radiation heat transfer to tubes

B7.6.1 Intube radiation exchange B7.6.2 Radiative heat flux from bank

C1 Practical aspects of heat exchanger design

C2 Heat transfer equipment types

C2.1 Construction data and geometry parameters

C2.1.1 Introduction C2.1.2 Tube bundle design characteristics

C2.2 Condenser types

C2.2.1 Introduction C2.2.2 Shellside condensers C2.2.3 Tubeside condensers

C2.3 Reboiler types

C2.3.1 Introduction C2.3.2 Kettle reboilers C2.3.3 Internal reboilers C2.3.4 Vertical thermosiphon reboilers C2.3.5 Horizontal thermosiphon reboilers C2.3.6 Pump-through reboilers C2.3.7 Falling film reboilers

C2.4 Gasketed plate heat exchangers: Construction and operational principles

C2.4.1 Introduction C2.4.2 Construction C2.4.3 Construction materials and design codes C2.4.4 Plate arrangements and other basic design principles C2.4.5 General applications

C2.5 Air-cooled heat exchanger construction practices

C2.5.1 Introduction C2.5.2 Description of air-cooled heat exchangers C2.5.3 Air-cooled heat exchanger configurations C2.5.4 Tube bundles C2.5.5 Axial flow fans C2.5.6 Plenum, fan deck, and fan ring construction C2.5.7 Motor-fan drives C2.5.8 Air flow in forced draft C2.5.9 Inert accumulation in air-cooled condensers

C2.6 Plate-fin heat exchanger construction and application

C2.6.1 Construction of aluminum plate-fin heat exchangers C2.6.2 Plate-fin heat exchanger applications

C2.7 Coiled-tube heat exchangers

C2.7.1 Coil-in-vessel heat exchangers C2.7.2 Coil-wound heat exchangers

C2.8 Heat exchanger selection

C2.8.1 Introduction C2.8.2 Important process parameters C2.8.3 Important geometry paramenters C2.8.4 Tubes C2.8.5 Selection guides

C2.9 Nomenclature

C3 Shell-and-tube single-phase flow

C3.1 Shellside heat transfer and pressure drop by Stream Analysis Method

C3.1.1 Flow distribution equations C3.1.2 Pressure drop calculations C3.1.3 Heat transfer calculations C3.1.4 Mean temperature difference profile, d C3.1.5 Probable accuracy C3.1.6 Shellside heat transfer and pressure drop, helical baffles C3.1.7 Disk-and-doughnut baffles C3.1.8 Crossbaffles C3.1.9 Shellside flow areas C3.1.10 Number of tuberows crossed C3.1.11 Shell exit flow areas C3.1.12 Shell entrance flow areas C3.1.13 Shellside heat transfer and pressure drop, strip baffles

C3.2 Pressure drop in tubeside nozzles and channels

C3.3 Pressure drop in shellside nozzles

C3.3.1 Standard nozzles C3.3.2 Impingement plates C3.3.3 Annular distributors

C3.4 Longitudinal baffle leakage: F, G, H shells

C3.4.1 Thermal leakage C3.4.2 Fluid flow leakage C3.4.3 Effect of physical leakage on heat transfer

C3.5 Exchanger mass estimation

C3.5.1 Bundle C3.5.2 Shell body C3.5.3 TEMA stationary heads C3.5.4 TEMA rear heads C3.5.5 Tubeside nozzles C3.5.6 Shellside nozzles C3.5.7 Longitudinal baffle C3.5.8 Total dry mass C3.5.9 Mass filled with water

C4 Condensers

C4.1 Condenser design

C4.1.1 Selection of condenser type

C4.2 Vertical tubeside condensers

C4.2.1 Introduction C4.2.2 Temperature profiles C4.2.3 Flow regimes C4.2.4 Condensing-side heat transfer C4.2.5 Condensing-side pressure drop C4.2.6 Coolant heat transfer and pressure drop

C4.3 Horizontal tubeside condensers

C4.3.1 Introduction C4.3.2 Temperature profiles C4.3.3 Flow regimes C4.3.4 Condensing-side heat transfer C4.3.5 Condensing-side pressure drop C4.3.6 Effect of inclination C4.3.7 Coolant heat transfer and pressure drop

C4.4 Horizontal shellside plain-tube condensers

C4.4.1 Introduction C4.4.2 Temperature profiles C4.4.3 Flow regimes C4.4.4 Condensing-side heat transfer C4.4.5 Condensing-side pressure drop C4.4.6 Condensate drainage C4.4.7 Venting C4.4.8 Coolant heat transfer and pressure drop

C4.5 Vertical shellside plain-tube condensers

C4.5.1 Introduction C4.5.2 Temperature profiles C4.5.3 Flow regimes C4.5.4 Condensing-side heat transfer C4.5.5 Condensate drainage C4.5.6 Venting C4.5.7 Coolant heat transfer and pressure drop

C4.6 Condensation in finned annulus of double-pipe heat exchanger

C4.7 Nomenclature

C5 Reboilers and vaporizers

C5.1 Kettle and internal reboiler design

C5.1.1 Introduction C5.1.2 Maximum heat flux C5.1.3 Nucleate regime, average boiling heat transfer coefficient, hab C5.1.4 Film boiling C5.1.5 Expected accuracy C5.1.6 General design considerations C5.1.7 Rating curve calculation procedure C5.1.8 Kettle sizing and liquid entrainment C5.1.9 Bundle circulation

C5.2 Horizontal shellside thermosiphon reboilers

C5.2.1 Introduction C5.2.2 Maximum heat flux C5.2.3 Average boiling heat transfer coefficient, hab C5.2.4 Heating medium heat transfer coefficients C5.2.5 Vapor fraction estimation

C5.3 Vertical tubeside thermosiphon reboilers

C5.3.1 Introduction C5.3.2 Design heat flux, qdes C5.3.3 Average boiling heat transfer coefficient, hab C5.3.4 Circulation velocity and vapor fraction estimation C5.3.5 Correction for subcooled liquid zone C5.3.6 Mist flow vapor fraction C5.3.7 Film boiling design C5.3.8 Heating medium coefficient, hh C5.3.9 Flow regimes C5.3.10 Thermosiphon reboiler piping C5.3.11 Two-phase flow instabilities in vertical thermosiphon reboilers C5.3.12 Turndown limits in vertical thermosiphon reboilers

C5.4 Vertical shellside thermosiphon reboilers

C5.4.1 Introduction C5.4.2 Circulation velocity and vapor fraction estimation C5.4.3 Recommendations for good flow distribution C5.4.4 Additional information on design and operation of waste heat boilers

C5.5 Forced-flow reboilers

C5.5.1 Introduction C5.5.2 Flow rate and fraction vaporized C5.5.3 Design heat flux C5.5.4 Average boiling heat transfer coefficient, hab C5.5.5 Tubeside flow distribution C5.5.6 Shellside forced-flow boiling

C5.6 Falling film reboilers/evaporators

C5.6.1 Introduction C5.6.2 Flow distribution C5.6.3 Heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop C5.6.4 Film breakdown

C5.7 Special design considerations

C5.7.1 Introduction C5.7.2 Fouling C5.7.3 Very wide boiling range mixtures C5.7.4 Operation near critical pressure C5.7.5 Operation in deep vacuum C5.7.6 Sparging C5.7.7 Very low DT C5.7.8 Very high DT C5.7.9 Shellside flow separation problems

C5.8 Effective mean temperature differences in reboilers

C5.8.1 Introduction C5.8.2 Kettle or internal reboilers C5.8.3 Vertical thermosiphon reboilers C5.8.4 Horizontal thermosiphon reboilers C5.8.5 Temperature profile calculation

C5.9 Spiral plate thermosiphon reboilers

C5.10 Boiling in finned annulus of double-pipe heat exchanger

C5.11 Nomenclature

C6 Fouling

C6.1 Fouling characteristics

C6.1.1 Types of fouling mechanisms C6.1.2 Fouling categories defined C6.1.3 General behavior of fouling processes C6.1.4 Application to HTRI software

C6.2 Cooling water fouling predictive model

C6.2.1 Generalized cooling water fouling predictive model C6.2.2 Cooling water–type fouling model

C6.3 Fouling deposit characteristics

C6.3.1 Characteristics of water fouling deposits C6.3.2 Conductivity of fouling deposits

C6.4 Fouling with single-phase heavy organics

C6.4.1 Common misconceptions C6.4.2 Threshold studies C6.4.3 Surface and bulk temperature effects C6.4.4 Velocity effects C6.4.5 Bulk composition and chemistry C6.4.6 Effect of salt in crude C6.4.7 Effect of surface condition C6.4.8 Flash drum

C6.5 Fouling in plate heat exchangers

C6.5.1 Effects of velocity and shear stress C6.5.2 Experimental data and recommended values

C6.6 Fouling in reboilers

C6.6.1 Guidelines for minimizing fouling C6.6.2 Start-up and control

C6.7 Analysis of crude oil fouling mechanisms

C6.7.1 Asphaltene adhesion C6.7.2 Coking C6.7.3 Corrosion C6.7.4 Crystallization C6.7.5 Insoluble gum formation C6.7.6 Sedimentation fouling

C6.8 Shear stress in shell-and-tube heat exchangers

C6.8.1 Tubeside shear stress C6.8.2 Shellside shear stress C6.8.3 Shellside longitudinal flow shear stress

C6.9 Nomenclature

C7 Flow-induced vibration

C7.1 Flow-induced vibration analysis

C7.1.1 Introduction C7.1.2 Vibration causes and effects C7.1.3 Natural frequency of tubes C7.1.4 Acoustic frequency of shell C7.1.5 Shellside velocities for vibration analysis C7.1.6 Vibration prediction methods

C7.2 Program results

C7.2.1 Introduction C7.2.2 Interpretation of vibration analysis results

C7.3 Design improvements

C7.3.1 Introduction C7.3.2 Tube vibration damage C7.3.3 Acoustic vibration noise C7.3.4 Other design considerations

C7.4 Troubleshooting and corrective actions

C7.5 Nomenclature