What is Politeness Principle? 什么是礼貌原则?

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What is Politeness Principle? 什么是礼貌原则?

2024-07-04 17:33| 来源: 网络整理| 查看: 265

文:侯国金

 

(以下选自《语言学百问和硕博指南》(待出版))

I.141 What is Politeness Principle? 什么是礼貌原则?

Leech (1983) formulates ‘Politeness Principle’, or PP for short, trying to remedy Grice’s (1975) Cooperative Principle (CP) which is presumed to be unable to interpret why, for instance, people are prone to use indirect ways of saying things. To Leech, it is politeness that motivates it.

Social acts like competitives (ordering, asking, begging, etc.) demand politeness far more than other kinds like convivials and collaboratives, because the former makes a threat to the audience’s face, or negative face (in Brown and Levinson’s (1978/1987) terms). Various politeness strategies, thus, are employed to mitigate the face-threatening power. According to Leech, the greater the cost an act is (be it verbal or non-verbal) to the audience, the more polite the speaker ought to try to make the utterance. 1) is a request, and it is (made) polite by (means of) the smallness of the cost to the other person, and the politeness particle please. 2) is an order, impolite in nature. So is 3), ruder and more dangerous for it is robbery.

1) Give me ten cents, please.

2) Put up your hand!

3) Give me all your money and get out of the house.

If the act is benefit (beneficial) to the hearer, the speaker does not have to sound polite, or extremely so, for the benefit speaks for itself. 4-5) are polite requests, so please as a token of politeness is not necessary, least so with 6) which is a huge if not impossible benefit.

4) You can take this newspaper.

5) Take this bike.

6) Drive my car away as you please.

The PP of Leech has six maxims (below is adapted from Leech: P. 132):

(1) Tact Maxim: Minimize cost to hearer; maximize benefit to hearer.

(2) Generosity Maxim: Minimize benefit to speaker; maximize cost to speaker.

(3) Approbation Maxim: Minimize dispraise of hearer; maximize praise of hearer.

(4) Modesty Maxim: Minimize praise of speaker; maximize dispraise of speaker.

(5) Agreement Maxim: Minimize disagreement between speaker and hearer; maximize agreement between speaker and hearer.

(6) Sympathy Maxim: Minimize antipathy between speaker and hearer; maximize sympathy between speaker and hearer.

We do not have to exemplify all the maxims, for most of them are self-evident, and we can easily detect that these maxims are not equally true with all cultures. Between the east and the west there may be found some noticeable differences, but in spite of that, Leech doubts if there is any ‘divide’. (Leech 2005) According to him, the PP as a principle is universal across cultures. Differences lie only in the social parameters of politeness like age, sex, rank of imposition represented by the saying, social distance between the two people or sides, relative power of one person over the other, and so on. When Americans and Chinese receive the same praise, for instance, the former like to thank or appreciate the praiser, while the latter try all means to minimize their own praise-worthy merit. But this does not mean that Americans disobey the Modesty Maxim. Thanking in this case implies modesty by thanking the praiser or other people (like the good director or teacher of the praised), and over-dispraising self is a typical (extreme) modesty model in the eastern culture. So the skepticism about the universality of PP all over the globe, which seemed to be gaining ground in the two or three decades after the appearance of Leech (1983), does not really hold under scrutiny.

作为社会的人、社交的人、合作的人——作为人,我们需要礼貌。

Grice(1975)论述了“合作原则”,但是没有讨论礼貌原则(Politeness Principle,简称PP),是Leech(1983)把接力棒接了过来,以图弥补或拯救“合作原则”难以解释人们有时使用间接表达式的倾向。根据Leech,这其实就是为了礼貌。他把语用原则分为“篇章修辞”(textual rhetoric)——即布局谋篇、巧说俗话的策略,和“人际修辞”(interpersonal rhetoric)——即为人处世的策略,而合作原则和礼貌原则都属于后者。假如言语分为“竞争类”(competitive)——命令、请求等,“和谐类”(convivial)——祝福、感谢等,“合作类”(collaborative)——告诉、通报等,“冲突类”(conflictive)——咒骂、威胁等,那么“竞争类”是最需要礼貌策略的行为。比较而言,“和谐类”本质上是礼貌的,“合作类”一般无所谓礼貌不礼貌,而“冲突类”本质上是不礼貌的。

“礼貌原则”有6条准则(改编自Leech:132页):

(1)策略准则(Tact Maxim,也叫“得体准则”——用于指令和承诺):尽力缩小对方的损失,尽力扩大对方的好处。如例1)。要求越大,就越要礼貌和策略。

(2)慷慨准则(Generosity Maxim,也叫“宽宏准则”——用于指令和承诺):尽力缩小自己的好处,尽力扩大自己的损失。如例4-6)所示。

(3)褒奖准则(Approbation Maxim,也叫“赞扬/赞誉准则”——用于表情和表述):尽力缩小对对方的诋毁,尽力扩大对对方的赞扬。如例7)中Allen的话——哪怕对方唱歌很平常,也要赞扬。

(4)谦逊准则(Modesty Maxim,也叫“谦虚准则”——用于表情和表述):尽力缩小对自己的赞扬,尽力扩大对自己的诋毁。如例7)中Marie的话。中国人和日本人此时会说“其实很难听”之类的自我诋毁话语。

(5)赞同准则(Agreement Maxim,也叫“一致准则、同意准则”——用于表述):尽力缩小与对方的分歧,尽力扩大与对方的一致。如例8)乙所说的话,即使听到的是胡扯,也不能说是胡扯。

(6)同情准则(Sympathy Maxim——用于表述):尽力缩小对对方的厌烦,尽力扩大对对方的同情(和好感)。如例9)中乙的话语。

7)Allen: You have a nightingale’s voice.

Marie: Thank you. I used to have a good teacher in college.

8)甲:重庆是中国最大的城市。

乙:是的,是很大。也许是西南乃至全中国最大的直辖市。

9)侯:我的小狗狗丢了。

朱:真可惜。是可爱的Jack不见了吗?我们大家帮你找找吧。

Leech的“礼貌原则”的准则不是孤立的,而是互相关联的,有的还能成为一对,如第一和第二条,第三和第四条。“礼貌原则”从提出来那天开始一直是语用学和社会学引用和评述的对象,得到了很多人(包括我国的研究者,如徐盛桓1992、王建华2001)的修补。Leech的“尽量缩小/扩大”等字眼成了随后的语用研究者的批评对象。是的,Leech是没有强调“礼貌原则”在各个文化里的相对性和其间的千差万别,但是他提到了,只是无暇细谈而已。Leech(1983,2005)借鉴并发展了Brown & Levinson(1978/1987)的“面子保全论”(Face-Saving Theory)。不论是考虑自己和对方的“积极面子”(positive face,也叫“正面面子、正向面子”)——欲得到赞赏、赞同、肯定的心态,还是“消极面子”(negative face,也叫“负面面子、负向面子”)——欲保持自由,不至于受到他人的干涉的心态[1],“礼貌原则”和它的6条准则具有跨文化的普遍性,具有很大的解释力,都能解释礼貌、礼貌的要求、话语礼貌的程度、礼貌的策略,礼貌合适与否,等等。

有趣的是,人们尤其是文化人特别讲究礼貌,所谓“礼多人不怪”;而另一方面,不是任何时候都要礼貌,或者说,不是任何时候任何地方对任何人都需要同等程度或很高程度的礼貌。有时,如对自己的至亲过于礼貌会使人震惊,有拒人于千里之外之感。有时,如对待阔别重逢的老友,不是或不能是文质彬彬,打躬作揖,而是/要责怪、批评甚至破口大骂,这是调侃(banter)——以示团结或亲密,符合“调侃原则”(Banter Principle)的精神。(见侯国金2008:284-304)

研究礼貌的跨文化共性和特性都是很有价值的。Leech(2005)提出的所谓“宏观礼貌策略”(grand strategy of politeness,简称GSP)其两条细则实际上是损己(低估、抑制、轻视自己以及自己一方的人和事)和尊人(尊敬、重视、抬举对方以及对方的人和事)。Leech的中国弟子顾曰国(1992)指出,中国人的礼貌有四个特点:尊人、损己、热情、文雅。(另见何兆熊等2000:241-2)也就是说中国人的礼貌的前两条就是Leech所说的具有跨文化普遍性的“宏观礼貌策略”。任何一个文化的礼貌都是很有趣的文化议题,值得语用学者深入研究。中国人把《礼记》作为必读之书,把“孝道”(尊敬和奉养父母)和“弟道”(对兄弟姐妹的团结友爱)作为礼貌或者做人的第一要素。Leech说中国人常发动“礼貌战争”(battles for politeness)或“礼貌拔河”(tug of war)。若要邀请他人吃饭,就要一请再请以示诚意,对方则一推再推。就是这个模式:

尝试性邀请 尝试性谢绝 进一步邀请 进一步谢绝

再进一步(真诚的)邀请 退一步(妥协的)接受

如果一请就止,说明没有诚意。如果一请就应,说明过度贪婪。Leech认为赞扬和自我诋毁也是这样的“礼貌战争”。中国人做东时要为客人夹菜,老师可以要求学生擦黑板,大人对邻居的小孩不断问结婚与否、工资高低等情况。春节前要赶回(老)家与父母团聚,初一过后要给长辈和亲戚拜年,长辈要给拜年的晚辈红包。这些都是很有趣的文化现象。电视连续剧《康熙微服私访记》“茶叶记”(3)里,奸臣呼大人见自己的妹妹要叩拜,因为她是皇妃。《红楼梦》(18回)里,贾府的大大小小都要叩拜从贾府嫁到皇宫去的贾元春(贾政之女)。因为中国讲究“上下有序”:注意这里的权力大小,此为皇权(“贵人、贵妃”)对黎庶(“草民、鸠、鸦”)。另外请注意“长幼有序”:父女关系、兄弟关系等。还要注意“男女有别”:男尊女卑、女士优先、男女授受不亲、好男不跟女斗,等等。在中国,上下级关系尤其是帝王和臣民的关系是高于一切的参数。

对几种文化的礼貌异同的对比研究更是有趣、有用。双语人或多语人的交际礼貌问题、跨文化交际礼貌问题、网络交际的礼貌问题等都值得研究。

(关于社会指别和礼貌的关系,请看I.144。)

 

(参见Leech 1983;2005;何兆熊等2000:211-42;Yule 2000:59-69;李宇明等2000:234-7;束定芳2000b:211-4[2];王建华2001;熊学亮2004:149-50;侯国金2008:248-384;Brown et al. 2008,第4卷:421-3;第9卷:679-95)

[1] Negative face: the want of every ‘competent adult member’ (of a society) that his actions be unimpeded by others. Positive face: the want of every member that his wants be desirable to at least some others. (Brown & Levinson 1978/1987, quoted from Leech 2005)

[2] 该书忘记介绍“同情准则”了。



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