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Sepharad（伊比利亚半岛的希伯来文名称）：安达卢斯的犹太人

          711年征服西班牙的穆斯林在位于大马士革的倭马亚王朝哈里发的领导下，以埃米尔（又译艾米尔或阿米尔，是阿拉伯国家的贵族头衔，此封号用于中东地区和北非的阿拉伯国家）的身份进行统治。758年，阿拔斯王朝推翻了大马士革的倭马亚王朝，阿卜杜·拉赫曼一世（756-788）在安达卢斯独立于阿拔斯王朝，他的继承人阿卜杜·拉赫曼三世（912-961）于929年建立科尔多瓦哈里发国。与他们的叙利亚祖先不同，西班牙的后倭马亚王朝对异教徒采取了更为宽松的政策。协助穆斯林军队在伊比利亚半岛建立伊斯兰统治的犹太人得到了最宽松和最慷慨的齐米地位奖励。犹太人从事各种形式的职业，从农业和葡萄种植到商业、贸易、医药和手工业。犹太人对其内部事务行使完整权力，并由犹太流亡者管理，在安达卢斯被称为ha-Nasi，即“王子”。

The Muslims who conquered Spain in 711 ruled as emirs under the authority of the Umayyad caliphate based in Damascus. When the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyads in Damascus in 758, Abd al-Rahman I (r. 756– 788) established Andalusi independence from the Abbasids, and his successor, Abd al-Rahman III (r. 912–961), declared the Umayyad caliphate in 929. Unlike their Syrian forebears, the Umayyads of Spain applied a more liberal policy to dhimmis. The Jews who aided the Muslim armies in establishing Islamic rule in the Iberian Peninsula were rewarded with one of the most lenient and generous manifestations of dhimmi status. Jews engaged in all manner of occupations, from agriculture and viticulture to commerce, trade, medicine, and the crafts. Jews exercised complete authority over their internal affairs and were governed by the Jewish exilarch, called ha-Nasi, “the prince,” in al-Andalus.

          犹太知识分子因其对阿拉伯文、希腊文、拉丁文和罗曼语系（“Romance”源自拉丁语“Romanicus”，在中世纪用于指罗马帝国内普通民众使用的一种白话拉丁语）的了解而受到高度重视，使他们成为担任外交官员的理想人选。两位特别著名的犹太官员是哈斯代·伊本·沙普鲁特（Hasdai ibn Shaprut，915-约990年）和塞缪尔·伊本·纳格里拉（Samuel ibn Nagrela，933-1056）。时至今日，Sepharad（伊比利亚半岛的希伯来文名称）代表了中世纪犹太文化的缩影。犹太宗教文化在阿拉伯文化的影响和伊斯兰统治的恩惠下开花结果。科尔多瓦卢塞纳（西班牙安达卢西亚自治区科尔多瓦省的一个市镇）的犹太神学院以犹太人学习的灯塔而闻名。希伯来语曾一度被视为圣经和塔木德的语言，但在西班牙穆斯林中却重新焕发了活力，因为犹太诗人看到了阿拉伯人奇妙的诗歌创作，并模仿他们创作了世俗的希伯来诗歌。同时，被彻底同化的犹太塔木德学者、哲学家和知识分子，如迈蒙尼德，也用流利而雄辩的阿拉伯语表达自己的观点。

Jewish intellectuals were highly valued for their knowledge of Arabic, Greek, Latin, and vernacular Romance languages, making them ideal to serve as foreign ministers and diplomats. Two particularly renowned Jewish ministers were Hasdai ibn Shaprut (915–c. 990) and Samuel ibn Nagrela (933–1056). To this day Sepharad, the name for Jewish Spain, represents the epitome of medieval Jewish culture. Jewish religious culture blossomed under the influence of Arab culture and the largesse of Islamic rule. The Jewish yeshiva at Lucena in Córdoba achieved renown as a beacon of Jewish learning. Hebrew, once relegated to the language of Scripture and Talmud, was reinvigorated in Muslim Spain as Jewish poets, seeing the wondrous poetic output of the Arabs, copied them and composed secular Hebrew poetry. At the same time thoroughly assimilated Jewish Talmudic scholars, philosophers, and intellectuals, such as Maimonides, expressed themselves in fluent and eloquent Arabic.

西班牙倭马亚王朝的犹太外交官

          哈斯代·伊本·沙普鲁特曾担任阿卜杜·拉赫曼三世的外交官和宫廷医生。虽然他没有正式的宰相头衔，但哈斯代·伊本·沙普鲁特就主要条约进行谈判，接待来自拜占庭帝国和神圣罗马帝国皇帝奥托一世的基督教使节，并在交战的基督教王国之间进行和平谈判。哈斯代是一位出色的学者，他监督了拜占庭皇帝君士坦丁七世于949年作为礼物送给阿卜杜·拉赫曼的华丽希腊手稿(佩达努思·迪奥斯科里德斯植物学著作)的翻译工作。

Hasdai ibn Shaprut served as diplomat and court physician to Abd al-Rahman III. Though he did not have the official title of vizier, Hasdai ibn Shaprut negotiated major treaties, welcomed Christian envoys from the Byzantine Empire and the German king Otto I, and negotiated peace among warring Christian kingdoms. An accomplished scholar, Hasdai oversaw the translation of a magnificent Greek manuscript of Dioscorides’ work on botany that the Byzantine emperor Constantine VII had sent as a gift to Abd al-Rahman in 949.

          在犹太历史方面，哈斯代·伊本·沙普鲁特将西班牙犹太人从东方犹太人的知识和礼仪控制中解放出来。巴格达被认为是犹太文化的中心，各地的拉比都向巴格达的学院提出请求，要求得到关于法律、礼仪、道德和伦理的意见。哈斯代使科尔多瓦成为犹太人的学术中心。拉比摩西·本·哈诺克（Moses ben Hanoch）（965年去世）被任命为卢塞纳塔木德学校的校长，单独提供希伯来文礼仪问题的答案。在哈斯代的慷慨解囊下，犹太教在科尔多瓦蓬勃发展，他支付了将书籍翻译成希伯来语和阿拉伯语的费用，为图书馆购买书籍，并资助犹太学校和学习机构。阿卜杜·拉赫曼三世全心全意地支持安达卢斯的犹太人从巴比伦独立出来，这与他对巴格达的阿拔斯王朝对手的哈里发要求是一致的。

With respect to Jewish history, Hasdai ibn Shaprut liberated Spanish Jewry from the intellectual and liturgical control of Jews in the East. Baghdad was thought the center of Jewish culture, and rabbis everywhere sent requests to the Baghdad academies for responsa, opinions on law, liturgy, morality, and ethics. Hasdai made Córdoba a sentinel Jewish center. He appointed Rabbi Moses ben Chanoch (d. 965) the gaon of the Talmudic school at Lucena that independently provided answers to questions of Hebrew liturgy. Judaism thrived in Córdoba under Hasdai’s generosity, as he paid for translations of books into Hebrew and Arabic, purchased books for libraries, and subsidized yeshiva schools and houses of study. Abd alRahman III wholeheartedly supported the independence of the Andalusian Jews from Babylonia, in keeping with his caliphal claims over and against his Abbasid rivals in Baghdad.

          穆斯林西班牙最有名的犹太王子是强大的塞缪尔·伊本·纳格里拉 (Samuel ibn Naghrillah) ，又称塞缪尔·哈·纳吉德，或哈-纳西（王子）（993-1056）。他于993年出生于科尔多瓦，在其漫长且动荡的一生中，他见证了1031年倭马亚王朝哈里发的倒台，他本人也是宫廷政治阴谋的受害者。纳格里拉是连续两任倭马亚王朝哈里发的外交大臣，共达29年。从1027年到1037年，他担任自治的齐里王朝国王哈布斯·本·马克森·穆扎法尔的大臣，后者从1019年到1037年统治格拉纳达。他也是一位战术家、战时行动指挥、战略家和国家战争的斗士。在1038年至1056年期间，除了两年之外，塞缪尔·伊本·纳格里拉每年都作为首席指挥官带领国王的军队在战场上作战。

The most famous Jewish prince in Muslim Spain was the powerful Samuel ibn Nagrela, also known as Samuel Ha Nagid, or Ha-Nasi, the Prince (993–1056). Born at Córdoba in 993, during his long and tumultuous life he witnessed the fall of the Umayyad caliphate in 1031 and was himself a victim of the political intrigues of the court. Samuel ibn Nagrela was the foreign minister or vizier to two successive Umayyad caliphs, for a total of 29 years. From 1027 until 1037 he served as vizier to the autonomous Zirid king Habbus al-Muzaffar, who ruled Granada from 1019 to 1037. He was also a battlefield tactician, wartime operations director, strategist, and fighter of his nation’s wars. Every year but two between 1038 and 1056, Samuel ha Nagid led the king’s army as its chief commander in the field.

卢塞纳的学术名人

          卢塞纳是科尔多瓦省南部的一个城镇，至少从九世纪起就一直是一个著名的犹太教学校的所在地，这也是保存下来的最早的法律答辩书的日期。12世纪科尔多瓦历史学家和哲学家亚伯拉罕·伊本·达乌德（Abraham ibn Daud）撰写的《卡巴拉之书》（Sefer ba-Cabala）中记录了一个犹太传说，其中提到了卢塞纳的学院。这个传说讲述了四个巴比伦拉比的船在意大利南部的巴里海岸被穆斯林海盗捕获。拉比们被四个不同国家的犹太社区赎回，其中一个是安达卢斯。西班牙的拉比就是前面提到的摩西·本·哈诺克，他和他的儿子哈诺克一起被哈斯代·伊本·沙普鲁特赎回了。如前所述，摩西·本·哈诺克被任命为卢塞纳犹太学校的校长，他的儿子在他死后继任。在摩西·本·哈诺克的任期内，卢塞纳神学院独立于巴比伦神学院。在九世纪，伊比利亚的犹太人将他们的法律问题寄给巴比伦的教士，而一个世纪后，他们的问题被寄给了安达卢斯的拉比。哈诺克为来自散居各地的犹太人的询问写了答复，这一事实表明，卢塞纳的拉比学者地位即使没有超过巴比伦的教士，也已经等同于他们。

Lucena, a town in the southern province of Córdoba, had been the site of a Jewish yeshiva of renown at least since the ninth century, the earliest date for which juridical responsa are preserved. The academy at Lucena is mentioned in a Jewish legend recorded in the Sefer ba-Cabala (The book of Kabbalah), written by the 12th-century Córdoban historian and philosopher Abraham ibn Daud. The legend tells of four Babylonian rabbis whose boat was captured by Muslim pirates off the coast of Bari in southern Italy. The rabbis were redeemed by Jewish communities in four different countries, one of which was al-Andalus. The Spanish rabbi was the aforementioned Moses ben Chanoch, who, together with his son, Chanoch, were redeemed by Hasdai ibn Shaprut. As noted, Moses ben Chanoch was appointed as gaon to the yeshiva at Lucena, and his son would succeed him upon his death. During the mandate of Chanoch ben Moses, the Lucena yeshiva achieved full independence from the Babylonian geonim. Whereas in the ninth century Iberian Jews were sending their legal queries to the geonim of Babylonia, a century later queries were being sent to the Andalusi rabbis. The fact that Chanoch wrote responsa to queries from all over the Jewish Diaspora indicates that the rabbinic scholars of Lucena had equaled if not surpassed the geonim of Babylonia.

          卢塞纳的名声一直延续到12世纪，在1086年至1145年阿尔摩拉维德（穆拉比特）柏柏尔人在伊比利亚半岛的统治中幸存下来。这些信奉禁欲主义的穆斯林改革者憎恨西班牙穆斯林统治者的自由主义，并将1085年托莱多被基督徒夺走的原因归咎于这种自由主义以及他们对异教徒的优待。因此，他们进行了一系列改革，包括限制穆斯林的公民自由，强行改变信仰，并发动大屠杀。卢塞纳社区通过向阿尔摩拉维德官员行贿，设法逃避了改变信仰的压力。在其统治末期，阿尔摩拉维德放松了对犹太人的大部分镇压措施，甚至保留了犹太人的政府职位。当迫害的历史在阿尔摩拉维德统治时期（1145-1269）重演时，大多数犹太家庭都逃到了伊斯兰世界的其他地区或北上到西班牙基督教区，结束了Sepharad的“黄金时代”。尽管有这些挫折，卢塞纳学院仍然培养出了诸如艾萨克·本·雅各布布·阿尔法西（1103年）及其弟子诗人、学者和医生犹大·哈列维（1144年）和约瑟夫·伊本·米加什（11世纪末）等伟大的塔木德学者，后者曾教授迈蒙尼德的父亲迈蒙。约瑟夫·伊本·米加什对《米书拿》的不朽评论影响了西班牙和法国对《塔木德》的研究。

Lucena’s fame would continue well into the 12th century, surviving the reign of the Almoravid Berbers in the Iberian Peninsula from 1086 to 1145. These ascetic Muslim reformists abhorred the liberality of the Muslim rulers of Spain and blamed this liberalism as well as their favorable treatment of the dhimmis for the loss of Toledo to the Christians in 1085. Accordingly, they instituted a number of reforms, which included restricting the civil liberties of the dhimmis, imposing enforced conversions, and perpetrating massacres. The community of Lucera managed to escape the pressure to convert through the payment of bribes to Almoravid officials. Toward the end of their rule, the Almoravids relaxed most of the repressive measures affecting the Jews and even retained Jews in government posts. When the history of persecution repeated itself under the reign of the Almohads (1145–1269), most Jewish families fled to other regions of the Islamic world or north to Christian Spain, effectively bringing an end to the “golden age” of Sepharad. Despite these setbacks the Lucena academy continued to produce such towering Talmudists as Isaac ben Jacob Alfasi (d. 1103) and his disciples the poet, scholar, and physician Judah HaLevi (d. 1144) and Joseph ibn Miqdash (late 11th century), the latter of whom taught Maimonides’ father, Maimon. Ibn Miqdash’s monumental commentaries on the Mishnah influenced the study of the Talmud in Spain and France.

          安达卢斯的伊斯兰化犹太人，如犹大·哈列维，逃到了西班牙基督教区，这代表了塞法迪犹太人和阿什肯纳兹犹太人关系史上的一个关键时刻（历史上，欧洲犹太人被分为两大群体：阿什肯纳兹犹太人，或“Germanics”（德系犹太人，在中世纪希伯来语中意为“德国”），表示他们的中欧基地；以及塞法迪人，或“西班牙裔”（ Sefarad ，希伯来语中的“西班牙”或“伊比利亚”），表示他们的西班牙、葡萄牙或北非基地）。由于以格拉纳达的犹大·本·索尔·伊本·提本（1120-1190）为首的一个杰出的翻译家家族将其翻译成希伯来语，塞法迪学术和一些阿拉伯科学文献得以传给阿什肯纳兹的犹太人。犹大的儿子塞缪尔在与迈蒙尼德直接协商后，将其《困惑者指南》从阿拉伯语原文翻译成希伯来文。

The flight of Andalusian Islamicized Jews, such as Judah HaLevi, into Christian Spain represents a key moment in the history of Sephardic-Ashkenazic relations. Sephardic scholarship and some Arabic scientific texts were transmitted to the Ashkenazic Jews thanks to the translations into Hebrew undertaken by a remarkable family of translators headed by Judah ibn Tibbon of Granada (1120–c. 1190). Judah’s son, Samuel, translated Maimonides’ Guide for the Perplexed from the original Arabic into Hebrew in direct consultation with the author.

迈蒙尼德之争（所谓“哲学家”和所谓“传统主义者”之间持续不断的一系列争论）

          科尔多瓦出生的拉比和哲学家摩西·迈蒙尼德（1135-1204）的著作在西班牙、法国和德国的犹太社区中引发了一系列争议。当迈蒙尼德只有13岁的时候，他的家人逃离了西班牙南部的阿尔摩哈德王朝（穆瓦希德王朝），在埃及的福斯塔特定居。正是在那里，他写下了他最有争议的两部作品，即《困惑者指南》和《米书拿妥拉》（《第二妥拉》）。其著作的光辉在整个犹太世界引起了轰动。他们吸引了安达卢斯、地中海和中东地区被穆斯林同化的希腊裔犹太人的钦佩，并在阿什肯纳兹的犹太人中展开了争论。阿什肯纳兹的犹太人尤其反对迈蒙尼德试图综合《圣经》和亚里士多德哲学的教义，反对他使用希腊方法来系统化哈拉卡（Halakhah，自圣经时代以来发展起来的法律和法令的总和，用于规范宗教仪式和宗教活动，字面翻译是“一个人行走的道路”），而不是传统的拉比方法。西班牙基督教区和法国南部的理性主义同化犹太人支持迈蒙尼德的立场。但是，德国的阿什肯纳兹犹太人，在十字军大屠杀的打击下，已经退出了禁欲主义、孤僻和神秘的哈西德派，不能接受迈蒙尼德的理性主义。由于迈蒙尼德的争论，阿什肯纳兹的拉比们试图对所有世俗研究，包括哲学、形而上学和数学施加禁令。

The writings of the Córdoban-born rabbi and philosopher Moses Maimonides (1135–1204) sparked a series of controversies among the Jewish communities of Spain, France, and Germany. When Maimonides was only 13 years old, his family fled the Almohads in southern Spain and settled in Fustat, Egypt. It was there that he wrote his two most controversial works, the Guide for the Perplexed and the Mishneh Torah (Second Torah). The brilliance and clarity of his writings caused a stir throughout the Jewish world. They drew admiration from the Muslim-assimilated Greek-oriented Jews of al-Andalus, the Mediterranean, and the Middle East and unleashed polemics among the Jews of Ashkenaz. Ashkenazic Jews especially objected to Maimonides’ attempts to synthesize the teachings of the Torah and Aristotelian philosophy and his use of Greek methods to systematize Halachic law instead of traditional rabbinic methods. Rationalist assimilated Jews of Christian Spain and southern France supported the Maimonidean position. But German Ashkenazic Jews, reeling from the crusader massacres, had withdrawn into an ascetic, insular, and mystical Hasidim that could not admit Maimonidean rationalism. As a result of the Maimonidean controversy, Ashkenazic rabbis tried to impose a ban on all secular studies, including philosophy, metaphysics, and mathematics.

中世纪的主要犹太人士

Saadya Gaon (882–942) 萨阿迪亚·果昂

           著名拉比、哲学家和巴比伦教士；直言不讳地反对卡拉派。他破灭了恢复基于月球观测的旧礼仪日历的企图，该日历已被拉比希勒尔二世在第四世纪抛弃了。他是一位多产的作家，写了许多关于希伯来语的作品；法律；哲学论文《信仰与见解之书》（Emunoth ve deoth）；以及几十篇反对卡拉派的论述。

Famous rabbi, philosopher, and prominent Babylonian gaon; outspoken opponent of the Karaites. He repulsed attempts to return to the old liturgical calendar based upon the sightings of the Moon, which had been discarded by Rabbi Hillel II in the fourth century. A prolific writer, he wrote numerous works on Hebrew philology; law; a philosophical treatise, Beliefs and Opinions (Emunoth ve deoth); and scores of tractates against the Karaites.

Hasdai ibn Shaprut (915–970) 哈斯代·伊本·沙普鲁特

          犹太语言学家、语法学家、医生和倭马亚王朝哈里发阿卜杜·拉赫曼三世（912-961年）的外交大臣。哈斯代·伊本·沙普鲁特的外交胜利之一是在莱昂和纳瓦拉这两个暴力国家之间促成其和平。他参与了将迪奥斯科里德斯的植物学著作的希腊文手稿翻译成阿拉伯文的工作，使阿拉伯人能够接触到该著作，并在此后向世界其他国家传播。他通过赞助卢塞纳的神学院，帮助塞法迪犹太教摆脱了对巴比伦神学院的依赖。

Jewish linguist, grammarian, physician, and minister of foreign affairs to the Umayyad caliph Abd alRahman III (r. 912–961). One of Hasdai ibn Shaprut’s diplomatic triumphs was to arrange peace between the violent states of León and Navarre. He participated in the translation of the Greek manuscript of Dioscorides’ work on botany into Arabic, making it accessible to Arabs and thereafter to the rest of the world. He helped to make Sephardic Judaism independent of its reliance upon the Babylonian geonim through his patronage of the yeshiva at Lucena.

Chanoch ben Moses (active 965) 摩西·本·哈诺克（又译摩西·本·查诺克）

          摩西·本·哈诺克继承了他的父亲Mosen ben Chanoch（卒于965年），成为科尔多瓦的首席拉比和整个穆斯林西班牙的犹太社区的精神领袖。传说中，他和他的父亲曾被海盗俘虏，被哈斯代·伊本·沙普鲁特赎回。在摩西·本·哈诺克的领导下，卢塞纳的神学院开始独立于巴比伦的拉比。世界各地的犹太人写信给哈诺克寻求答案，这使卢塞纳成为犹太法律研究的灯塔。

Chanoch ben Moses succeeded his father, Mosen ben Chanoch (d. 965), as the chief rabbi of Córdoba and the spiritual head of the Jewish community of all Muslim Spain. Legend has it that he and his father were shipwrecked by pirates and redeemed by Hasdai ibn Shaprut. Under the leadership of Chanoch ben Moses the yeshiva of Lucena became independent of the rabbis of Babylonia. Jews from all over the world wrote to Chanoch seeking responsa, which converted Lucena into a beacon of Jewish legal studies.

Samuel ha Nagid (993–1056) 塞缪尔·纳吉德

          西班牙倭马亚王朝的犹太人中著名的犹太王子（(“Ha-Nasi”）。他曾担任最后两位倭马亚王朝哈里发的大臣，1031年科尔多瓦哈里发倒台后，他迁往格拉纳达，担任柏柏尔泰法国王的大臣。塞缪尔也是一位学者、语法学家、军事指挥官和有成就的诗人。在他的诗集《Ben Mishle》中，反映了世俗话题，如王权和战争的愚蠢，以及表达对家庭的虔诚和爱。

Renowned Jewish prince (“Ha-Nasi”) of the Jews of Umayyad Spain. He served as vizier to the last two Umayyad caliphs, and after the fall of the Córdoban caliphate in 1031, he relocated to Granada to take up the position as vizier to the Taifa Berber king. Samuel was also a scholar, grammarian, military commander, and accomplished poet. In his poetry collection, Ben Mishle, he reflects on worldly topics such as the follies of kingship and war as well as expressing piety and love of family.

Maimonides (1135–1204) 摩西·本·迈蒙（迈蒙尼德）

          科尔多瓦的摩西·本·迈蒙，被称为迈蒙尼德，是中世纪犹太历史上最著名的拉比和哲学家。他出生于科尔多瓦，其家人在穆瓦希德王朝的迫害下移民到埃及。他移民到埃及象征着西班牙犹太人“黄金时代”的消亡。迈蒙尼德学习亚里士多德哲学，并撰写了宏大的《米书拿妥拉》（Mishneh Torah）（第二部妥拉），其中使用希腊的分类系统综合了妥拉的教义。他的《困惑者指南》是希腊理性思想和犹太教的高度综合，引发了迈蒙尼德之争，这有可能破坏了塞法迪和阿什肯纳兹犹太人之间的关系。

Moses ben Maimon of Córdoba, known as Maimonides, was the most famous rabbi and philosopher in the history of medieval Jewry. He was born in Córdoba, and his family emigrated to Egypt in the wake of the Almohad persecutions. His immigration to Egypt symbolizes the demise of the “golden age” of Jewish Spain. Maimonides studied Aristotelian philosophy and wrote the mammoth Mishneh Torah (Second Torah), which synthesized the teachings of the Torah using Greek systems of classification. His Guide for the Perplexed, a towering synthesis of Greek rational thought and Judaism, sparked the Maimonides Controversy, which threatened to sever relations between Sephardic and Ashkenazic Jews.

Meir ben Baruch of Rothenberg (1215–c. 1286) 罗腾堡的梅尔·本·巴鲁赫

          德国13世纪最伟大的拉比，来自杰出的阿什肯纳兹拉比的家族。他出席了1240年关于《塔木德》的巴黎争论，这次争论导致许多《塔木德》手稿被烧毁。他为纪念这一事件而创作的诗歌悼词成为犹太教礼仪的一部分。他作为阿什肯纳兹最重要的拉比获得了赞誉，其答辩和教义在后世留下了不可磨灭的痕迹。他在1286年英勇地拒绝接受神圣罗马帝国皇帝对犹太人实行农奴制的做法，导致他被监禁和死亡。

Germany’s greatest rabbi of the 13th century. He hailed from a long line of prominent Ashkenazic rabbis. He was present at the Paris Disputations on the Talmud of 1240, which resulted in the burning of numerous manuscripts of the Talmud. The poetic eulogy he composed to commemorate this event became a part of Jewish liturgy. He achieved acclaim as the foremost rabbi of Ashkenaz, and his responsa and teachings made an indelible mark on future generations. His heroic refusal to accept the Holy Roman Emperor’s imposition of serfdom on the Jews, issued in 1286, led to his imprisonment and death.

《Handbook To Life in The Medieval World》（2008）

By Madeleine Pelner Cosman and Linda Gale Jones 

下一章将进入中世纪“社会”篇