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4.5

2.9 Journals Forests

Bacterial Biomarkers of Forest Fires

Mechanical Properties of Wood: A Review

Mapping of Allergenic Tree Species in Highly Urbanized Area Using PlanetScope Imagery

Alignment of National Forest Policy Frameworks with the EU Timber Regulation Requirements: Insights from Montenegro and the Republic of Srpska (Bosnia and Herzegovina)

Mapping Balsam Woolly Adelgid Infestation Severity Using Remote Sensing and Climate Data Journal Description Forests Forests is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on forestry and forest ecology published monthly online by MDPI. Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions. High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Ei Compendex, GEOBASE, PubAg, AGRIS, PaperChem, and other databases. Journal Rank: JCR - Q1 (Forestry) / CiteScore - Q1 (Forestry) Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 19 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.6 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2023). Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done. Testimonials: See what our editors and authors say about Forests. Impact Factor: 2.9 (2022); 5-Year Impact Factor: 3.0 (2022) subject Imprint Information get_app Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 1999-4907 Latest Articles 18 pages, 1188 KiB Open AccessArticle Effect of the Timber Legality Requirement System on Lumber Trade: Focusing on EUTR and Lacey Act by

Ki-Dong Kim,

Gyuhun Shim,

Hyun-Im Choi and

Dong-Hyun Kim Forests 2023, 14(11), 2232; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14112232 (registering DOI) - 13 Nov 2023 Abstract This study provides novel insights into the policy effects of timber legality verification methods, specifically Due-diligence (under the European Union Timber Regulation (EUTR)) and Due-care (under the Lacey Act), on coniferous and non-coniferous lumber trade, highlighting their significance in the context of global [...] Read more. This study provides novel insights into the policy effects of timber legality verification methods, specifically Due-diligence (under the European Union Timber Regulation (EUTR)) and Due-care (under the Lacey Act), on coniferous and non-coniferous lumber trade, highlighting their significance in the context of global lumber trade. Timber legality verification plays a pivotal role in the global timber trade. We comprehensively assess the impact of verification methods on coniferous and non-coniferous lumber trade, utilizing two decades of trade data (1997–2017) across approximately 160 countries. We employ the difference-in-differences method based on the gravity model of international trade, utilizing robust export–import data and demographic profiles. Our findings demonstrate that the effect of EUTR on coniferous lumber imports ranged between −0.32% and −0.05%, and that on non-coniferous lumber imports ranged between −0.44% and −0.05%, whereas the effect of the Lacey Act on coniferous lumber imports ranged between −0.93% and −0.09%. Non-coniferous lumber imports remained unaffected. The Voluntary Partnership Agreement (VPA) led to decreased exports to the EU and US. Our findings hold two key implications. First, Due-diligence exhibits more consistent policy effects than Due-care. Second, supporting VPA-participating countries is crucial for facilitating timber trade. These insights inform timber trade policies and sustainable practices. Full article (This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Forest REDD+ Research) ►▼ Show Figures

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17 pages, 13866 KiB Open AccessArticle Monitoring Seasonal Growth of Eucalyptus Plantation under Different Forest Age and Slopes Based on Multi-Temporal UAV Stereo Images by

Xu Tang,

Peng Lei,

Qixu You,

Yao Liu,

Shijing Jiang,

Jianhua Ding,

Jianjun Chen and

Haotian You Forests 2023, 14(11), 2231; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14112231 (registering DOI) - 13 Nov 2023 Abstract Eucalyptus grows rapidly and can grow up to 10 m per year, making them an important source of wood supply. Guangxi is a typical karst terrain, with hills and plains being the main growth areas for Eucalyptus. The differences in terrain can [...] Read more. Eucalyptus grows rapidly and can grow up to 10 m per year, making them an important source of wood supply. Guangxi is a typical karst terrain, with hills and plains being the main growth areas for Eucalyptus. The differences in terrain can affect the seasonal growth of Eucalyptus plantations at different forest ages, which in turn affects the stocking of Eucalyptus. Currently, indiscriminate logging and management not only cause resource waste but also bring economic losses to operators. In this study, an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) was used to obtain multi-temporal stereo images to investigate the seasonal growth differences in structural parameters of individual Eucalyptus trees under different forest ages and slopes, providing data support for the precise management of Eucalyptus resources. The results showed that the tree height, crown width, diameter at breast height (DBH), and aboveground biomass (AGB) of individual trees, extracted based on UAV stereo images, are highly correlated with the field measured data, with an R2 of 0.99, 0.78, 0.75, and 0.92, and RMSE of 0.21 m, 0.16 m, 1.17 cm, and 3.79 kg/tree, respectively. The growth of Eucalyptus structural parameters varies in different seasons, with faster growth in spring and autumn, accounting for 76.39%, 73.75%, 73.65%, and 73.68% of the total annual growth, respectively. The growth of different structural parameters of individual trees is closely related to forest age, with tree height, crown width, and DBH gradually slowing down with the increase in forest age, while AGB shows a trend of first increasing and then decreasing. The differences in terrain also have a certain impact on the growth of individual Eucalyptus tree structural parameters. For individual 1-year-old and 3-year-old Eucalyptus trees, those located on gentle slopes grow faster in spring and autumn than those located on flat land. However, those located on flat land grow faster in summer and winter than those located on gentle slopes. For tree height, crown width, DBH, and AGB, the maximum annual growth differences between Eucalyptus trees on gentle slopes and flat are 3.17 m, 0.26 m, 1.9 cm, and 9.27 kg/tree, respectively. The results indicate that based on UAV stereo images, the individual tree structural parameters in Eucalyptus plantations under different forest ages and slopes can be extracted, as well as seasonal growth can be monitored, providing data support for logging, planting, and management of Eucalyptus plantations. Full article (This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing) ►▼ Show Figures

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20 pages, 5237 KiB Open AccessArticle Screening and Regulatory Mechanisms of Inter-Root Soil Nematicidal Bacteria of Pinus massoniana by

Manman Liu,

Yating Wang,

Jiacheng Zhu,

Guoying Zhou and

Junang Liu Forests 2023, 14(11), 2230; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14112230 (registering DOI) - 13 Nov 2023 Abstract Pine Wilt Disease (PWD), caused by the pathogenic nematode Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, is a systemic infectious disease commonly referred to as the “cancer” of pine trees. This devastating disease has gained this analogy due to its ability to rapidly spread within pine populations, [...] Read more. Pine Wilt Disease (PWD), caused by the pathogenic nematode Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, is a systemic infectious disease commonly referred to as the “cancer” of pine trees. This devastating disease has gained this analogy due to its ability to rapidly spread within pine populations, leading to substantial losses in forest resources. The primary objective of this study is to investigate the bioprotective potential and underlying mechanisms of action exhibited by rhizosphere microorganisms associated with Masson pine (Pinus massoniana) in the context of controlling the pine wilt nematode. In this experiment, using high-throughput sequencing, significant differences were observed in the rhizosphere soil microbial communities among healthy Masson pine, standing dead trees, and diseased Masson pine. Furthermore, it was found that these microbial communities exhibited distinct community structures at different levels. This study successfully isolated and screened three strains of highly effective nematophagous bacteria from the rhizosphere soil. The identified strains were Lysinibacillus capsici, Bacillus Paramycoides, and Delftia tsuruhatensis. After applying the bacterial suspensions and fermentation extracts of these three strains to the roots of two-year-old Masson pine seedlings, followed by inoculation with pine wilt nematodes after a four-day period, distinct defense responses were observed in the Masson pine. Notably, the activities of phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) and peroxidase (POD) were significantly increased, leading to a substantial reduction in the incidence of pine wilt disease. Based on the changes in defense enzyme activities, it can be concluded that the fermentation extract of the Lysinibacillus capsici strain exhibits effective nematocidal effects and induces resistance. The significant biological control efficacy and induction of host defense activity indicate the potential application value of this strain and its metabolites as a biocontrol agent for pine wilt disease. Full article (This article belongs to the Section Forest Health) ►▼ Show Figures

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10 pages, 726 KiB Open AccessArticle Basal Bark Treatment of Imidacloprid for Hemlock Woolly Adelgids (Adelges tsugae) by

Matthew Quinterno,

Gregory Dahle,

Kathryn Gazal,

Anand Persad and

Jason Hubbart Forests 2023, 14(11), 2229; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14112229 (registering DOI) - 12 Nov 2023 Abstract Hemlock wooly adelgid (Adelgis tsugae Annand) (HWA) has invaded much of eastern hemlock’s (Tsugae canadensis L. Carrière) native range. Arborists and forest managers have successfully handled this pest using either contact or systemic pesticides. One of these pesticides, imidacloprid, has often [...] Read more. Hemlock wooly adelgid (Adelgis tsugae Annand) (HWA) has invaded much of eastern hemlock’s (Tsugae canadensis L. Carrière) native range. Arborists and forest managers have successfully handled this pest using either contact or systemic pesticides. One of these pesticides, imidacloprid, has often been applied using a soil or trunk injection. Although imidacloprid has been labeled as a basal bark spray to control HWA, minimal information regarding its efficacy is available. This study compared bark treatments to soil treatment of imidacloprid at high and low application rates, as well as the use of a bark adjuvant. The results showed that basal bark treatments were as effective as soil treatments. Hence, basal bark treatments of imidacloprid can be an effective method for control of HWAs in eastern hemlock trees. A bark adjuvant may not be necessary, as it was not found to influence the amount of imidacloprid in the tissues. Full article (This article belongs to the Section Forest Health) 17 pages, 7012 KiB Open AccessArticle The Multivariate Distribution of Stand Spatial Structure and Tree Size Indices Using Neighborhood-Based Variables in Coniferous and Broad Mixed Forest by

Yiru Wang,

Jiping Li,

Xiaoyu Cao,

Zhaohua Liu and

Yong Lv Forests 2023, 14(11), 2228; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14112228 (registering DOI) - 12 Nov 2023 Abstract The spatial structure of forest stands significantly influences inter-tree competition and the overall stability of the stand’s ecological dynamics, and a profound understanding of forest stand spatial structure is essential for both effective forest management and ecological research. Previous studies on spatial structure [...] Read more. The spatial structure of forest stands significantly influences inter-tree competition and the overall stability of the stand’s ecological dynamics, and a profound understanding of forest stand spatial structure is essential for both effective forest management and ecological research. Previous studies on spatial structure have primarily employed single variables, offering only one-dimensional structural insights and lacking the capacity to interpret multidimensional information. In light of these limitations, our study introduces a novel approach founded on a six-variable distribution, aimed at conducting a comprehensive analysis and interpretation of the spatial attributes of forest stands. Diverging from conventional univariate or bivariate methods, the hexi-variate approach simultaneously considers six variables, facilitating a more intricate exploration of the intricate interrelationships within forest ecosystems from six distinct dimensions. We conducted an in-depth analysis of the spatial structural attributes within the forest stand, encompassing factors such as species diversity, size variation, spatial distribution patterns, openness, vertical stratification, and stand competition. To capture a comprehensive view of the trees’ spatial information, we employed the hexadecimal distribution method, effectively quantifying their characteristics across six dimensions. Our study unveiled a significant correlation between spatial structure and stand growth, establishing a connection by integrating the spatial structure with key structural features relevant to tree size. The outcomes of this study shed light on the effectiveness and superiority of the six-element distribution method when it comes to the analysis of forest structural characteristics. Our approach offers valuable insights into the optimization of forest management strategies, encompassing selective harvesting and biodiversity conservation, thereby establishing a solid footing for sustainable forest management practices. Full article (This article belongs to the Special Issue Spatial Distribution and Growth Dynamics of Tree Species) ►▼ Show Figures

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17 pages, 6256 KiB Open AccessArticle Response of a Sylvan Moss Species (Didymodon validus Limpr.) with a Narrow Distribution Range to Climate Change by

Tingting Wu,

Chuntong Pan,

Tao Bian,

Qiaoxin Wang,

Jin Kou and

Bangwei Zhou Forests 2023, 14(11), 2227; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14112227 (registering DOI) - 11 Nov 2023 Abstract Mosses are particularly susceptible to climate change owing to their close biological and ecological associations with climatic conditions. However, there is a limited understanding of the changes in distribution patterns of the moss species in forest ecosystems under climate change, especially in mosses [...] Read more. Mosses are particularly susceptible to climate change owing to their close biological and ecological associations with climatic conditions. However, there is a limited understanding of the changes in distribution patterns of the moss species in forest ecosystems under climate change, especially in mosses with narrow ranges. Therefore, we reconstructed historical, simulated present, and predicted future potential distribution patterns of Didymodon validus, a narrow-range moss species in the forest ecosystem, using the MaxEnt model. The aim of this study was to explore its unique suitable habitat preference, the key environmental factors affecting its distribution, and the distributional changes of D. validus under climate change at a long spatial-time scale. Our findings indicate that the most suitable locations for D. validus are situated in high-altitude regions of southwestern China. Elevation and mean temperature in the wettest quarter were identified as key factors influencing D. validus distribution patterns. Our predictions showed that despite the dramatic climatic and spatial changes over a long period of time, the range of D. validus was not radically altered. From the Last Interglacial (LIG) to the future, the area of the highly suitable habitat of D. validus accounted for only 15.3%–16.4% of the total area, and there were weak dynamic differences in D. validus at different climate stages. Under the same climate scenarios, the area loss of suitable habitat is mainly concentrated in the northern and eastern parts of the current habitat, while it may increase in the southern and eastern margins. In future climate scenarios, the distribution core zone of suitable habitat will shift to the southwest for a short distance. Even under the conditions of future climate warming, this species may still exist both in the arid and humid regions of the QTP in China. In summary, D. validus showed cold and drought resistance. Our study provides important insights and support for understanding the impact of climate change on the distribution of D. validus, as well as its future distribution and protection strategies. Full article (This article belongs to the Section Forest Meteorology and Climate Change) ►▼ Show Figures

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attachment Supplementary material: Supplementary File 1 (ZIP, 328 KiB) 17 pages, 1759 KiB Open AccessArticle Changes in Soil Fungal Diversity and Composition along a Rural–Urban Gradient by

Hans-Peter Rusterholz and

Bruno Baur Forests 2023, 14(11), 2226; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14112226 (registering DOI) - 11 Nov 2023 Abstract The functioning of forest ecosystems depends on the taxonomic and ecological diversity of soil fungi. Urbanization is increasing worldwide and is regarded as a key driver of environmental change altering local species assemblages in urban forest. We investigated whether the degree of urbanization [...] Read more. The functioning of forest ecosystems depends on the taxonomic and ecological diversity of soil fungi. Urbanization is increasing worldwide and is regarded as a key driver of environmental change altering local species assemblages in urban forest. We investigated whether the degree of urbanization and local forest characteristics affect the soil fungal community in 20 beech forests located along a rural–urban gradient in the city of Basel and its suburbs (Switzerland). We analyzed their soil fungal communities by DNA metabarcoding of the rDNA ITS2 region and related these data to local forest vegetation characteristics and soil properties. The number of fungal OTUs in the 20 forests examined ranged from 170 to 303. Richness, diversity and evenness of fungal communities were all significantly affected by the degree of urbanization, but in different ways. Soil fungal richness was highest in forests in areas with a low degree of urbanization and lowest in forests in rural areas. In contrast, the fungal community diversity increased with the increasing degree of urbanization. Different fungal phyla and fungal guilds showed distinct patterns in their relative abundance along the rural–urban gradient. The degree of urbanization reduced the relative abundance of symbiotrophic fungi, but increased that of saprotrophic and pathotrophic fungi. Our results show that urbanization changes soil fungal community, which in turn can lead to alterations in forest ecosystems. Full article (This article belongs to the Section Forest Biodiversity) ►▼ Show Figures

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attachment Supplementary material: Supplementary File 1 (ZIP, 4329 KiB) 21 pages, 9444 KiB Open AccessArticle Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl. from the Thayatal National Park in Austria: Selection of Potentially Drought-Tolerant Phenotypes by

Marcela van Loo,

Roman Ufimov,

Michael Grabner,

Christian Übl,

Andrea Watzinger,

Florian Irauschek,

Heino Konrad,

Soňa Píšová and

Carlos Trujillo-Moya Forests 2023, 14(11), 2225; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14112225 (registering DOI) - 11 Nov 2023 Abstract The increasing demand for climate-adapted seeds and planting material poses a challenge due to the limited availability, particularly for tree species such as oaks. National parks, known for their large-standing diversity and a wide range of habitats, can serve as valuable sources for [...] Read more. The increasing demand for climate-adapted seeds and planting material poses a challenge due to the limited availability, particularly for tree species such as oaks. National parks, known for their large-standing diversity and a wide range of habitats, can serve as valuable sources for identifying trees suitable for both the initiation of tree breeding and conservation strategies. This study aimed to identify valuable forest genetic resources of the Thayatal National Park in Austria by selecting potentially drought-tolerant phenotypes. For this purpose, we selected 404 mature trees of Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl. from eight populations growing on medium to dry sites in eight populations. Further, we characterized them for autochthony, genetic structure, genetic diversity using genetic markers (plastid- and nuclear-SSRs) and estimated their age. Finally, we applied wood core analysis to estimate tree response to historical drought events to identify the possible drought-tolerant phenotypes. The age of the trees ranged from 29 to 245 years (as of the year 2023). All Q. petraea trees were inhabiting a plastid haplotype 17a, autochthonous for this area. Nevertheless, the genetic structure estimated by ten nuSSRs revealed a pronounced structure in the dataset, largely caused by young trees exhibiting lower genetic diversity. A total of 85 elite potentially drought-tolerant trees were finally selected based on their morphological response (resistance, recovery ability, resilience, and relative resilience) to three historical drought events (1992–1994, 1947, 1917). The intrinsic water use efficiency and its difference (iWUE and DWiWUE), estimated by isotope analysis of δ13C of latewood in wet (1987) and dry (1994) years, did not correlate with any of the drought response traits (Rt, Rc, Rs, rRs). We discuss the further use of the selected oak trees for the establishment of seed stands and orchards to enhance seed production and the integration of other omics approaches, such as large-scale high-throughput plant phenotyping (HTPP) and transcriptomics, for in-depth analyses of drought tolerance of selected phenotypes. Full article (This article belongs to the Special Issue Quercus Research for Improvement and Protection: From Field and Greenhouse Experiments to Biotechnology and Molecular Analysis) ►▼ Show Figures

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attachment Supplementary material: Supplementary File 1 (ZIP, 154 KiB) 19 pages, 8690 KiB Open AccessArticle Evaluation of Multiple Classifier Systems for Mapping Different Hierarchical Levels of Forest Ecosystems in the Mediterranean Region Using Sentinel-2, Sentinel-1, and ICESat-2 Data by

Giorgos Mallinis,

Natalia Verde,

Sofia Siachalou,

Dionisis Latinopoulos,

Christos Akratos and

Ifigenia Kagalou Forests 2023, 14(11), 2224; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14112224 (registering DOI) - 11 Nov 2023 Abstract The conservation and management of forest areas require knowledge about their extent and attributes on multiple scales. The combination of multiple classifiers has been proposed as an attractive classification approach for improved accuracy and robustness that can efficiently exploit the complementary nature of [...] Read more. The conservation and management of forest areas require knowledge about their extent and attributes on multiple scales. The combination of multiple classifiers has been proposed as an attractive classification approach for improved accuracy and robustness that can efficiently exploit the complementary nature of diverse remote sensing data and the merits of individual classifiers. The aim of this study was to develop and evaluate multiple classifier systems (MCSs) within a cloud-based computing environment for multi-scale forest mapping in Northeastern Greece using passive and active remote sensing data. Five individual machine learning base classifiers were used for class discrimination across the three different hierarchy levels, and five ensemble approaches were used for combining them. In the case of the binary classification scheme in the upper level of the hierarchy for separating woody vegetation (forest and shrubs) from other land, the overall accuracy (OA) slightly increased with the use of the MCS approach, reaching 94%. At the lower hierarchical levels, when using the support vector machine (SVM) base classifier, OA reached 84.13% and 74.89% for forest type and species mapping, respectively, slightly outperforming the MCS approach. Yet, two MCS approaches demonstrated robust performance in terms of per-class accuracy, presenting the highest average F1 score across all classification experiments, indicating balanced misclassification errors across all classes. Since the competence of individual classifiers is dependent on individual scene settings and data characteristics, we suggest that the adoption of MCS systems in efficient computing environments (i.e., cloud) could alleviate the need for algorithm benchmarking for Earth’s surface cover mapping. Full article (This article belongs to the Special Issue Mapping Forest Vegetation via Remote Sensing Tools) ►▼ Show Figures

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attachment Supplementary material: Supplementary File 1 (ZIP, 213 KiB) 14 pages, 2770 KiB Open AccessArticle Rapid Assessment of Land Use Legacy Effect on Forest Soils: A Case Study on Microarthropods Used as Indicators in Mediterranean Post-Agricultural Forests by

Ninon Delcourt,

Nathalie Dupuy,

Catherine Rébufa,

Adriane Aupic-Samain,

Lisa Foli and

Anne-Marie Farnet-Da Silva Forests 2023, 14(11), 2223; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14112223 (registering DOI) - 11 Nov 2023 Abstract Agriculture is known to strongly influence soil functioning. Nevertheless, its long-term effects remain not well documented in the Mediterranean region, which has a long history of human land use. The “Parc Naturel Régional du Luberon” is a good illustration of these land use [...] Read more. Agriculture is known to strongly influence soil functioning. Nevertheless, its long-term effects remain not well documented in the Mediterranean region, which has a long history of human land use. The “Parc Naturel Régional du Luberon” is a good illustration of these land use changes, as its territory is now covered with forests of differing ages and histories. This study investigates the effect of past land use (agricultural terraces) on microarthropods of current forest soils. In this way, Acari and Collembola of soils from ancient forests, recent forests (developed before 1958), and very recent forests (developed after 1958) were analysed. Different pedoclimatic conditions (Meso-Mediterranean vs. Supra-Mediterranean) and two contrasted seasons (winter and summer) were taken into account in mesofauna responses. A negative effect of past agricultural land use was observed on soil microarthropod abundance in very recent forests only, whatever the pedoclimatic conditions. After at least 60 years of reforestation, this negative effect was no longer observed, indicating a recovery of these communities. Land use legacy effect on oribatid mites in post-agricultural forests depended on the pedoclimatic conditions considered, suggesting that the recovery of microarthropod communities takes more time under more arid conditions. Microarthropods can be considered as good bioindicators of past land use effects depending on pedoclimatic conditions in forest soils. Full article (This article belongs to the Special Issue Agro-Ecosystems Resilience in View of Climate Change) ►▼ Show Figures

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13 pages, 8684 KiB Open AccessArticle Fertility Variation and Effective Population Size across Varying Acorn Yields in Turkey Oak (Quercus cerris L.): Implications for Seed Source Management by

Nebi Bilir,

Koeun Jeon,

Ye-Ji Kim and

Kyu-Suk Kang Forests 2023, 14(11), 2222; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14112222 (registering DOI) - 10 Nov 2023 Abstract This research examines the impact of varied acorn yields on the effective population size of Turkey oak (Quercus cerris L.) as assessed through the fertility averages of zygotic parents. We selected two distinct populations from the species’ natural habitats based on their [...] Read more. This research examines the impact of varied acorn yields on the effective population size of Turkey oak (Quercus cerris L.) as assessed through the fertility averages of zygotic parents. We selected two distinct populations from the species’ natural habitats based on their good and poor acorn production rates to investigate acorn production, growth attributes, and their interrelationships over three years of production and two years of growth data. Results showed that the population with good acorn production exhibited greater growth attributes and acorn yields compared to the poor acorn production population. Acorn production had lower coefficients of variation compared to growth attributes. Fertility variation in both populations was moderate, with a decrease in the effective number of parents from the population with abundant acorn production to the one with limited acorn production. The presence of mixed seeds from diverse populations had a detrimental impact on fertility variation and related metrics. Nonetheless, this study suggests that regions with limited acorn production still have the potential for natural regeneration due to their larger effective population size when coupled with appropriate forestry practices such as selective acorn harvesting to enhance genetic diversity. These findings emphasize the importance of accounting for fertility variation in the selection and management of seed sources, even within the context of a limited area and three years of data. Further research should be conducted in larger populations and over longer periods to draw more comprehensive conclusions. Full article (This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Markers in Forest Management and Tree Breeding) ►▼ Show Figures

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attachment Supplementary material: Supplementary File 1 (ZIP, 208 KiB) 17 pages, 16032 KiB Open AccessArticle Comprehensive Analysis of Chloroplast Genome of Hibiscus sinosyriacus: Evolutionary Studies in Related Species and Genera by

Soon-Ho Kwon,

Hae-Yun Kwon,

Young-Im Choi and

Hanna Shin Forests 2023, 14(11), 2221; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14112221 (registering DOI) - 10 Nov 2023 Abstract The Hibiscus genus of the Malvaceae family is widely distributed and has diverse applications. Hibiscus sinosyriacus is a valuable ornamental tree, but it has not been extensively researched. This study aimed to complete the chloroplast genome of H. sinosyriacus and elucidate its evolutionary [...] Read more. The Hibiscus genus of the Malvaceae family is widely distributed and has diverse applications. Hibiscus sinosyriacus is a valuable ornamental tree, but it has not been extensively researched. This study aimed to complete the chloroplast genome of H. sinosyriacus and elucidate its evolutionary relationship with closely related species and genera. The complete chloroplast genome of H. sinosyriacus was found to be 160,892 bp in length, with annotations identifying 130 genes, including 85 coding genes, 37 tRNAs, and 8 rRNAs. Interspecific variations in the Hibiscus spp. were explored, and H. sinosyriacus has species-specific single-nucleotide polymorphisms in four genes. Genome structure analysis and visualization revealed that in the Abelmoschus genus, parts of the large single-copy region, including rps19, rpl22, and rps3, have been incorporated into the inverted repeat region, leading to a duplication and an increase in the number of genes. Furthermore, within the Malvales order, the infA gene remains in some genera. Phylogenetic analysis using the whole genome and coding sequences established the phylogenetic position of H. sinosyriacus. This research has further advanced the understanding of the phylogenetic relationships of Hibiscus spp. and related genera, and the results of the structural and variation studies will be helpful for future research. Full article (This article belongs to the Section Genetics and Molecular Biology) ►▼ Show Figures

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15 pages, 6737 KiB Open AccessArticle Effects of Microstructure and Chemical Composition on the Visual Characteristics of Flattened Bamboo Board by

Lisheng Chen,

Caiping Lian,

Meiling Chen and

Zhihui Wu Forests 2023, 14(11), 2220; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14112220 (registering DOI) - 10 Nov 2023 Abstract Flattened bamboo board is a new type of bamboo-based panel with various colors that maintains the natural texture of bamboo, and is gradually being used in indoor home decoration. Revealing the influence mechanism on the visual effect of flattened bamboo boards is the [...] Read more. Flattened bamboo board is a new type of bamboo-based panel with various colors that maintains the natural texture of bamboo, and is gradually being used in indoor home decoration. Revealing the influence mechanism on the visual effect of flattened bamboo boards is the key to improving the processing of such boards for household materials. This study employed visual physical quantity measurement methods, field emission scanning electron microscopy, FTIR spectroscopy, and XPS to investigate the visual physical quantities, morphology, and chemical composition of flattened bamboo boards. The results showed that compared with the control samples, the bamboo outer layer boards were dark brown, with the largest ΔE* (38.55), while the outer boards were reddish-brown, with the largest a* (8.82). The inner boards were yellow-red and showed a lower ΔE* (6.55). Due to the elevated density, abundant inclusion, and wax, the bamboo outer layer board exhibited the highest glossiness and darkest color, followed by the outer board and the inner board. The FTIR spectroscopy revealed that hemicellulose decomposed, and the relative content of lignin increased, leading to color changes in the flattened bamboo boards. The bamboo outer layer board was the darkest due to changes in C=C bonds at 1600 cm−1 and 1509 cm−1. The surface color of the outer board was mainly red, which may be caused by C–O bonds at 1239 cm−1. The surface of the inner board was mainly yellow, which may be caused by the C–H stretching vibration of lignin at 1108 cm−1. XPS analysis showed that the proportion of C1 and O1 increased, while C2, C3, and O2 decreased, indicating that hemicellulose degraded at high temperatures, which increased the relative lignin content. Changes in the relative content of oxygen-containing functional groups and SiO2 in the flattened bamboo board were important factors responsible for the change in visual physical quantities. Full article (This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wood- and Bamboo-Based Materials: Modification and Assessment) ►▼ Show Figures

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15 pages, 2512 KiB Open AccessReview Modification and Application of Bamboo-Based Materials: A Review—Part I: Modification Methods and Mechanisms by

Zhiyu Zheng,

Nina Yan,

Zhichao Lou,

Xizhi Jiang,

Xiaomei Zhang,

Shan Chen,

Rui Xu,

Chun Liu and

Lei Xu Forests 2023, 14(11), 2219; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14112219 (registering DOI) - 10 Nov 2023 Abstract In light of continual societal advancement and escalating energy consumption, the pursuit of green, low-carbon, and environmentally friendly technologies has become pivotal. Bamboo, renowned for its diverse advantages encompassing swift growth, ecological compatibility, robust regenerative properties, commendable mechanical characteristics, heightened hardness, and abundant [...] Read more. In light of continual societal advancement and escalating energy consumption, the pursuit of green, low-carbon, and environmentally friendly technologies has become pivotal. Bamboo, renowned for its diverse advantages encompassing swift growth, ecological compatibility, robust regenerative properties, commendable mechanical characteristics, heightened hardness, and abundant availability, has discovered applications across various domains, including furniture and construction. Nevertheless, natural bamboo materials are plagued by inherent limitations, prominently featuring suboptimal hydrophobicity and vulnerability to fracture, thereby constraining their broad-scale application. Thus, the paramount concern is to enhance the performance of bamboo materials through modification. However, prevailing reviews of bamboo modification predominantly concentrate on physical or chemical approaches, resulting in a conspicuous absence of a comprehensive overview of bamboo modification techniques. This review explores an array of bamboo treatment modalities and delivers a valuable assessment of bamboo modification, offering significant guidance for forthcoming bamboo enhancement and utilization endeavors. Full article (This article belongs to the Section Wood Science and Forest Products) ►▼ Show Figures

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25 pages, 7863 KiB Open AccessFeature PaperArticle Informing Sustainable Forest Management: Remote Sensing Strategies for Assessing Soil Disturbance after Wildfire and Salvage Logging by

Sarah A. Lewis,

Peter R. Robichaud,

Vince A. Archer,

Andrew T. Hudak,

Jan U. H. Eitel and

Eva K. Strand Forests 2023, 14(11), 2218; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14112218 - 10 Nov 2023 Abstract Wildfires have nearly become a guaranteed annual event in most western National Forests. Severe fire effects can be mitigated with a goal of minimizing the hydrologic response and promoting soil and vegetation recovery towards the pre-disturbance condition. Sometimes, post-fire actions include salvage logging [...] Read more. Wildfires have nearly become a guaranteed annual event in most western National Forests. Severe fire effects can be mitigated with a goal of minimizing the hydrologic response and promoting soil and vegetation recovery towards the pre-disturbance condition. Sometimes, post-fire actions include salvage logging to recover timber value and to remove excess fuels. Salvage logging was conducted after three large wildfires on the Lolo National Forest in Montana, USA, between 2017 and 2019. We evaluated detrimental soil disturbance (DSD) on seven units that were burned at low, moderate, and high soil burn severity in 2022, three to five years after the logging occurred. We found a range of exposed soil of 5%–25% and DSD from 3% to 20%, and these values were significantly correlated at r = 0.88. Very-high-resolution WorldView-2 imagery that coincided with the field campaign was used to calculate Normal Differenced Vegetation Index (NDVI) across the salvaged areas; we found that NDVI values were significantly correlated to DSD at r = 0.87. We were able to further examine this relationship and determined NDVI threshold values that corresponded to high-DSD areas, as well as develop a model to estimate the contributions of equipment type, seasonality, topography, and burn severity to DSD. A decision-making tool which combines these factors and NDVI is presented to support land managers in planning, evaluating, and monitoring disturbance from post-fire salvage logging. Full article (This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Forest Cover Change and Its Ecological and Environmental Effects) ►▼ Show Figures

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26 pages, 12363 KiB Open AccessArticle Using Medium-Resolution Remote Sensing Satellite Images to Evaluate Recent Changes and Future Development Trends of Mangrove Forests on Hainan Island, China by

Chengzhi Yu,

Binglin Liu,

Shuguang Deng,

Zhenni Li,

Wei Liu,

Dongqing Ye,

Jiayi Hu and

Xinyu Peng Forests 2023, 14(11), 2217; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14112217 - 10 Nov 2023 Abstract Mangroves are endemic forest communities in tropical and subtropical coastal zones. China’s Hainan Island is very rich in mangrove plant species. In recent years, due to climate change and human disturbance, the living environment of many mangrove distribution areas has been seriously threatened. [...] Read more. Mangroves are endemic forest communities in tropical and subtropical coastal zones. China’s Hainan Island is very rich in mangrove plant species. In recent years, due to climate change and human disturbance, the living environment of many mangrove distribution areas has been seriously threatened. This study used land satellite series remote sensing images from 1990 to 2020 to monitor the coverage and area changes of mangroves on Hainan Island. The spatial distribution pattern and change trend of mangroves were explored using the standard deviation ellipse method, and the CA–Markov model was used to predict the possible changes of mangroves in the study area in 2025 and 2030. The development trend of mangroves in the future and the driving factors affecting the evolution of mangroves were also analyzed. Over the past 30 years, the area of mangroves has witnessed fluctuations. It decreased from 4578 hectares in 1990 to its lowest at 3870 hectares in 2005 and then rebounded to 4474 hectares by 2020, indicating an initial decline followed by a gradual increase. Although conservation and restoration efforts have yielded success, specific areas have witnessed a decline in mangrove coverage. From 1990 to 2020, mangrove areas in Huiwen decreased from 1055 hectares to 904 hectares, areas in Guannan decreased from 227 hectares to 167 hectares, areas in Xinyinggang decreased from 328 hectares to 298 hectares, areas in Yangpugang decreased from 747 hectares to 682 hectares, areas in Huachangwan decreased from 355 hectares to 327 hectares, and areas in Puqian decreased from 170 hectares to 141 hectares. In particular, the growth in the Eastern and Mayao port areas is especially significant. Additionally, data analysis has revealed the spatial distribution characteristics of mangroves in different regions, such as the mangrove area in Dongzhaigang, which remained relatively stable from 1990 to 2020, while in other areas like Huiwen and Guannan, the mangrove area decreased during these 20 years. By calculating the standard deviation ellipse, we observed that the overall change of mangroves on Hainan Island from 1990 to 2020 was relatively slow, mainly distributed along the northern coastal area of Hainan Island. Furthermore, the standard deviation ellipse and SDE center point of each mangrove growth area have visualized the growth trends of the mangroves. The Markov chain simulation results show that future changes in mangroves will mainly be concentrated in the marginal areas of the mangroves. These areas may be affected by rising sea levels, climate change, soil salinity, and human activities. In the future, mangrove areas are expected to display a dynamic equilibrium, experiencing periods of expansion and reduction, ultimately moving towards a more consistent state. To protect and restore mangroves, it is necessary to strengthen the monitoring and management of their ecological environment and socio-economic factors and improve their stability and diversity. Full article (This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Forest Cover Change and Its Ecological and Environmental Effects) ►▼ Show Figures

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attachment Supplementary material: Supplementary File 1 (ZIP, 464 KiB) 15 pages, 1871 KiB Open AccessArticle Phosphorus Rather than Nitrogen Addition Changed Soil Cyanobacterial Community in a Tropical Secondary Forest of South China by

Xiangbo Zou,

Xinyu Jiang,

Chuangting Chen,

Cao Kuang,

Ji Ye,

Shiwei Qin,

Jiong Cheng,

Guangli Liu,

Faming Wang and

Shiqin Yu Forests 2023, 14(11), 2216; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14112216 - 09 Nov 2023 Abstract Soil cyanobacteria in tropical forests is understudied despite its important role in soil biochemical process and plant growth. Under a nitrogen (N) deposition background in tropical forests, it is important to learn how soil cyanobacterial communities respond to N deposition and whether phosphorus [...] Read more. Soil cyanobacteria in tropical forests is understudied despite its important role in soil biochemical process and plant growth. Under a nitrogen (N) deposition background in tropical forests, it is important to learn how soil cyanobacterial communities respond to N deposition and whether phosphorus (P) mediated this response. A fully two-factor (N and P additions) factorial design with four blocks (replicates), each including a 12 × 12 m plot per treatment (Control, +N, +P, and +NP) were established in a tropical secondary forest in 2009. In July of 2022, soil cyanobacteria at 0–10 cm and 10–20 cm depths in the experimental site were collected and analyzed using a metagenomic method. The impact of N and P additions on soil cyanobacteria remained consistent across the different soil depths, even though there was a significant contrast between the two layers. The effect of N addition on soil cyanobacteria did not significantly interact with P addition. N addition increased soil N availability and decreased soil pH but did not significantly affect the soil cyanobacterial community. In contrast, P addition increased soil P availability and soil pH, but decreased soil N availability and substantially changed the soil cyanobacterial community. P addition significantly decreased the abundance of soil cyanobacteria, especially abundant ones. P addition also increased cyanobacterial species richness and Shannon’s diversity, which might be explained by the decline in dominant species and the emergence of new species as nestedness and indicator species analyses suggest. We concluded that (1) soil cyanobacteria in tropical forests exhibits a greater sensitivity to elevated P availability compared to N; (2) an increase in soil P supply may mitigate the advantage held by dominant species, thus facilitating the growth of other species and leading to alterations in the soil cyanobacterial community. This study improves our understanding on how soil cyanobacterial communities in tropical forest responds to N and P addition. Full article (This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Nutrient Cycling and Microbial Dynamics in Forests) ►▼ Show Figures

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15 pages, 4217 KiB Open AccessArticle Experimental Investigation on Dowel Laminated Timber Made of Uruguayan Fast-Grown Species by

Gastón Bruzzone,

Daniel Godoy,

Sebastián Quagliotti,

Stephany Arrejuría,

Silvia Böthig and

Laura Moya Forests 2023, 14(11), 2215; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14112215 - 09 Nov 2023 Abstract This study aims to evaluate the structural behaviour of dowel laminated timber (DLT) made of fast-growing pine and eucalyptus lamellae and different dowel diameters. Shear tests on dowelled connections and four-point bending tests on structural size panels were performed, and the slip modulus [...] Read more. This study aims to evaluate the structural behaviour of dowel laminated timber (DLT) made of fast-growing pine and eucalyptus lamellae and different dowel diameters. Shear tests on dowelled connections and four-point bending tests on structural size panels were performed, and the slip modulus and bending properties, respectively, were obtained. The bending stiffness and strength of pine panels fastened with guatambú (5.05 and 20.05 kN/mm2) or eucalyptus dowels (5.29 and 17.13 kN/mm2), suggesting that dowel species had no influence on the panel’s bending properties. The analysis of the bending stiffness and strength of eucalyptus panels fastened with 18 mm (11.04 and 44.29 kN/mm2) or with 15 mm dowel diameter (11.06 and 51.50 kN/mm2) indicated that dowel diameter had no substantial influence on the bending properties. Furthermore, the stiffness values of the panels were similar to those of their constitutive individual lamellas, which, in turn, did not comply with the structural requirements of the Uruguayan Standard. Additional analytical results of the effective stiffness using the slip modulus were close to those found in the experimental bending tests. The results from this study are useful in understanding the mechanical behaviour of DLT panels and provide the basis for the improvement of Uruguayan mass timber products. Full article (This article belongs to the Section Wood Science and Forest Products) ►▼ Show Figures

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18 pages, 2092 KiB Open AccessArticle The Different Roles of Mineralogy in Soil Organic Carbon Accumulation in Northern and Southern China by

Yuedong Liu,

Yanan Huang,

Batande Sinovuyo Ndzelu,

Dongyu Xiao,

Futao Zhang,

Yueling Zhang and

Jiguang Zhang Forests 2023, 14(11), 2214; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14112214 - 09 Nov 2023 Abstract The sequestration of soil organic carbon (SOC) through mineral protection is an important approach to mitigating climate change. However, the effect of mineral composition on SOC stability is unclear at regional scales. In this study, we investigated the relationship between mineralogy and SOC [...] Read more. The sequestration of soil organic carbon (SOC) through mineral protection is an important approach to mitigating climate change. However, the effect of mineral composition on SOC stability is unclear at regional scales. In this study, we investigated the relationship between mineralogy and SOC in Alfisol and Mollisol from southern and northern regions of China. We analyzed soil at two layers for its SOC fractions, mineralogical characteristics and functional groups. It was found that the majority of SOC was stored as mineral-associated organic C (MAOC), which had higher δ13C values and narrower C/N ratios compared to particulate organic C. In Mollisol, the proportion of MAOC and the abundance of aromatic C were higher than that in Alfisol, while polysaccharide C was lower. Compared to Alfisol, Mollisol was dominated by illite, and had significantly (p < 0.05) lower iron (Fe) and aluminum (Al) sesquioxides contents. The SOC content was positively correlated with illite in Mollisol, and with Fe and Al sesquioxides in Alfisol. The random forest model identified sesquioxides as the most important determinant of SOC accumulation (36%), followed by SOC fractions (18%) and functional groups (18%). In summary, our study suggests that SOC protection through mineralogy depends more on the composition of the host minerals, and not just on the clay content, and aromatic C is also important in the stabilization of SOC. Full article (This article belongs to the Special Issue Agro-Ecosystems Resilience in View of Climate Change) ►▼ Show Figures

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attachment Supplementary material: Supplementary File 1 (ZIP, 331 KiB) 17 pages, 7363 KiB Open AccessArticle Surface Roughness of Wood Substrates after Grinding and Its Influence on the Modification Effect of Structural Color Layers by

Yi Liu,

Jing Hu and

Wei Xu Forests 2023, 14(11), 2213; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14112213 - 09 Nov 2023 Abstract For a comprehensive understanding of the surface roughness of wood substrates after grinding and its influence on the construction of surface structural color layers (SCLs) and the effect of color production, four typical diffuse-porous wood species were investigated by grinding with abrasive belts [...] Read more. For a comprehensive understanding of the surface roughness of wood substrates after grinding and its influence on the construction of surface structural color layers (SCLs) and the effect of color production, four typical diffuse-porous wood species were investigated by grinding with abrasive belts of different grits. The results indicated that an abrasive belt of suitable grit was required to form the flattest surface for different wood species. Notably, 400-grit abrasive belts can be used for quaking aspen (QA) and yellow poplar (YP) wood, while 320-grit abrasive belts can be used for kang duan (KD) and hard maple (HM) wood for the grinding process. When the grit of the belt was 80–240, the surface roughness of the wood was high, and the gully contour was mainly determined by the machining marks created by the grits during the cutting process. When the SCLs were constructed on these wood samples, the grooves formed by grit grinding caused the emulsion to overflow on the surface of the wood, thus preventing the formation of well-ordered SCLs with excellent color production. In contrast, when the grit of the abrasive belts was increased to the range of 320–800, the main factors affecting the roughness of the wood surface led to the anatomical structural features. Vessels, in particular, not only affected the surface roughness of the wood but also served as a major path for emulsion flow. The number, diameter, and patency of vessels per unit area were the main factors affecting the SCL’s construction and decoration effect on wood surfaces. This study clarifies that the roughness of the wood surface after the grinding process is jointly influenced by the grit of the abrasive belt and the wood’s anatomical structure. Roughness is an essential factor that affects the modification effect of the SCLs on the surface of wood. Full article (This article belongs to the Section Wood Science and Forest Products) ►▼ Show Figures

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