Chapter1

Linguistics: the scientific study of language. （定义）

General Linguistics:

Phonetics:the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds

Phonology: sound patterns of languages

Morphology: the form of words

Syntax: the rules governing the combination of words into sentence.

Semantics: the meaning of language

Pragmatics:the meaning of language is conducted in the context of language

Langue vs. parole (F. de Saussure)语言和言语（定义）

Langue: the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community. Parole: the realization of langue in actual use.

Competence and performance (Chomsky)语言能力和语言应用（定义）

Competence:the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language

Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication

H ow is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?（相似点，不同点）

Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks what linguists should study is the ideal user’s competence, not his performance is too haphazard to be studied.

So the task of the linguists should discover and specify rules.

Two linguists idea differ in that Saussure took a sociological view of language, Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.（定义）(语言是一个具有任意性、用于人类交流的语音符号系统。)

The design features of human language (Charles Hockett in 1960)（定义）

Arbitrariness(任意性):No logical connection between sounds and meanings.（定义）Productivity/Creativity(能产性/创造性):Peculiar to human languages，users of language can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before.（定义）

Duality:Language is organized at two levels or layers simultaneously. （定义）

The lower or basic level is a structure of sounds which are meaningless.

The higher level is morpheme or word (double articulation)

Displacement（定义）Cultural transmission

Chapter2

Phonetics（语音学）（定义）

Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.（是指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究，它关注语言世界中的所有语音）Three branches of phonetics:

articulatory phonetics（发音）auditory phonetics（听觉）acoustic phonetics（声学）Orthographic representation of speech sounds：Broad transcription and Narrow transcription A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound.

Phonetics & phonology：（定义，区别）

Both are concerned with the same aspect of language: the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus.

Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; (it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.)

Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.

Phone（音素）Phoneme（音位）Allophone（音位变体）: （定义）

Phone: a phone is a phonetic unit or segment （音素是一个语音单位或者说语音段）

The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.

Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, and some don’t

Phoneme:a phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value, it is an abstract unit.（音位是一个音位学的单位，而且是一个有区别意义的单位，是一个抽象的单位）Allophones: the different phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.（在不同的语音环境下代表某个音位的音素）Suprasegmental features (超切分特征): stress（重音）tone声调）intonation（语调）

The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments

Chapter3

Morphology（形态学）（定义）

Morphology: The part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure Morpheme: the minimal unit of meaning.（定义）

Allomorphs:a set of morphs, all of which are versions of one morpheme, a morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms.

Free morpheme & bound morpheme（定义，会用，选择）

Free morpheme: is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself.

Bound morpheme:can not normally stand alone, but which are typically attached to another form. (One that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can not stand by themselves, “al” in “national”.)

Derivational morpheme & inflectional morpheme

Derivational morphemes:the morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of words, e.g. modern---modernize length---lengthen, fool---foolish, etc.

Inflectional morphemes: the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaning, e.g.

a) Number: tables apples cars

b) Person, finiteness and aspect: talk/talks/talking/talked

c) Case: John/John’s

Root（词根）Stem（词干）Base（根基）（定义，会用，选择）

Root: A root is that part of the word left when all the affixes (inflectional & derivational) are removed, e.g. “desire”in “desirable”, “care”in“carefully”.

Stem: A stem is part of a word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed, e.g. “undesirable”in undesirables.

Base: A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added. This means any stem and root can be termed as a base.

The difference between root, stem & base

Order: root (stem) + derivational + inflectional 词根/词干+派生+曲折

A base can be added by both inflectional & derivational affixes while a stem can be added only by inflectional affixes;

A base is derivationally analyzable (e.g. undesired in undesirable) while a root cannot be further analyzed, e.g. desire in undesirable;

Root, stem and base can be the same form, e.g. desire in desired;

Undesirable in undesirables is either a stem or a base;

Desirable in undesirable is only a base.

Chapter4

Syntax（句法学）（定义）

Syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.

（句法学是研究词是如何组成句子以及如何支配句子构成规则的一个语言学分支）

Phrase categories and their structures

Phrase categories----the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase categories, such as noun phrase: NP (N), verb phrase: VP (V), adjective phrase: AP (A), and prepositional: PP (P).

The structure: specifier + head + complement

Head（中心语）---- the word around which a phrase is formed

Specifier（标志成分）---- the words on the left side of the heads

Complement（补足成分）---- the words on the right side of the heads

Phrase structure rules:

The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as:

NP (Det限定词) + N + (PP)……e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls.

VP (Qual修饰词) + V + (NP)……e.g. always play games, finish assignments.

AP (Deg程度词) + A + (PP)……very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close to

PP (Deg) + P + (NP)……o n the shelf, in the boat, quite near the station

S→NP VP(A sentence consists of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase)

Do insertion: Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position.

Chapter5 Semantics（语义学）（定义）

Semantics: the study of meaning from the linguistic point of view （对意义的研究）

the naming theory命名论→Plato

the conceptualist view概念论:Semantic triangle →Ogden and Richards

Thought/reference → concept 思想/指称

Symbol/Form (words) 符号/形式Referent →(real object)所指Contextualism语境论→John Firth

Behaviorism→ Bloomfield行为主义论based on contextualist view

S: stimulus r: response

Jill Jack

S---------r………s---------R

(The small letters r, sàspeech) (The capitalized letter R, Sàpractical events)

Sense（意义）and reference（所指/指称）（定义）

Sense:is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.

Reference:means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. Synonymy同义现象: The sameness or close similarity of meaning

A. dialectal synonyms方言同义词synonyms used in different regional dialects（美式/英式英语）

B. stylistic synonyms文体同义词synonyms differing in style（问题、正式度不同）

C. synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning情感或评价意义不同同义词（褒贬义）

D. collocational synonyms搭配同义词（词语搭配、用法）

E. semantically different synonyms语义不同的同义词（意义上稍有不同）

Antonymy反义词: oppositeness

Sense relations between sentences

1)X is synonymous with Y.

X: He was a bachelor all his life. Y: He never got married all his life.

X: The boy killed the cat. Y: The cat was killed by the boy.

If X is true, Y is true; if X is false, Y is false.

2) X is inconsistent with Y.

X: This is my first visit to Beijing.

Y: I have been to Beijing twice.

3) X entails Y.

X: John married a blond heiress.

Y: John married a blond.

X: Marry has been to Beijing.

Y: Marry has been to China.

Entailment is a relation of inclusion. If X entails Y, then the meaning of X is included in Y.

If X is true, Y is necessarily true; if X is false, Y may be true or false.

4) X presupposes Y. (Y is prerequisite of X.)

X: His bike needs repairing.

Y: He has a bike

If X is true, Y must be true; If X is false, Y is still true.

5) X is a contradiction

*My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.

6) X is semantically anomalous

*The table has bad intentions.

Componential analysis: a way to analyze lexical meaning.

Predication analysis: a way to analyze sentence meaning. (British G. Leech).

Predication: the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.

A predication consists of argument(s)（名词部分）and predicate（谓语部分）.

Chapter6

Pragmatics（语用学）（问答，辨析，定义）

Pragmatics:the study of language in use or language communication; the study of the use of context to make inference about meaning.

The study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. (book) Pragmatics vs. semantics

Semantics:is the study of the literal meaning of a sentence (without taking context into consideration).

Pragmatics:the study of the intended meaning of a speaker (taking context into consideration), e.g. “Today is Sunday”, semantically, it means that today is the first day of the week; pragmatically, you can mean a lot by saying this, all depending on the context and the intention of the speaker, say, making a suggestion or giving an invit ation…

Context:a basic concept in the study of pragmatics. It is generally considered as constituted knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer, such as cultural background, situation(time, place, manner, etc.), the relationship between the speaker and the hearer,etc.

Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning句子意义和话语意义

Sentence meaning: Abstract and context-independent meaning; literal meaning of a sentence; utterance meaning: concrete and context-dependent meaning; intended meaning of a speaker; For example, “The bag is heavy” can mean

a bag being heavy (sentence meaning);

an indirect, polite request, asking the hearer to help him carry the bag;

the speaker is declining someone’s request for help.

Note: The meaning of an utterance is based on the sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context; utterance meaning is richer than sentence meaning; it is identical with the purpose for which the speaker utters the sentence

Speech Act Theory（言语行为理论）J. L. Austin (1962)

Constatives (述事话语) statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable; Performatives (行事话语) sentences that do not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.

Note: Sometimes they ar e easy to get confused, e.g.“It is raining outside” can be a constative, and also a performative, for by uttering such a sentence, we may not only state a fact, but involve in the act of informing someone about the rain.

Austin’s new model of speech acts

According to Austin’s new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.

The locutionary act（言内行为）an act of saying something, i.e. an act of making a meaningful utterance (literal meaning of an utterance);

The illocutionary act（言外行为）an act performed in saying something: in saying X, I was doing Y (the intention of the speaker while speaking).

The perlocutionary act（言后行为）an act performed as a result of saying something: by saying X and doing Y, I did Z.

For example, “It is cold in here.”

Its locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal meaning the weather is clod in here;

Its illocutionary act can be a request of the hear to shut the window;

Its perlocutionary act can be the hearer’s shutting the window or his refusal to comply with the request.

----Analyze one more example: “You have left the door wide open.”

Note: Of the three acts, what speech act theory is most concerned with is the illocutionary act. It attempts to account for the ways by which speakers can mean more than what they say.

Analyze the illocutionary acts of the following conversation between a couple:

----(the telephone rings)

----H: That’ the phone. (1)

----W: I’m in the bathroom. (2)

----H: Okay. (3)

Searle’s classification of speech acts (1969)

Assertives/representatives(阐述类)

Directives(指令类)

Commissives(承诺类)

Expressives(表达类)

Declarations(宣布类)

Indirect speech act→Searle

Principle of conversation (Paul Grice) Cooperative principle (CP) 会话原则或合作原则（CP原则）Significance重要性: it explains how it is possible for the speaker to convey more than is literary said.

它解释了说话人是如何表达字面意义之外的信息

Four maxims of CP

The maxim of quality数量准则（提供足量的信息，不要提供超于所需信息之外的信息）

----Do not say what you believe to be false.

----Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.

The maxim of quantity质量准则（不说假话，不说缺乏足够证据的话）

----Make your contribution as informative as required for the current purpose of the exchange.

----Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.

The maxim of relation关系准则（有相关性）

----Be relevant (make your contribution relevant).

The maxim of manner方式准则（避免表达艰涩，避免歧义，简洁，避免冗繁，有条理）

----Avoid obscurity of expression.

----Avoid ambiguity.

----Be brief.

----Be orderly.

Conversational implicature

In real communication, however, speakers do not always observe these maxims strictly. These maxims can be violated for various reasons. When any of the maxims is blantantly violated, i.e. both the speaker and the hearer are aware of the violation, our language becomes indirect, then conversational implicature arises.

Cross-cultural pragmatic failure

Pragmatic failure: occurs when the speaker fails to use language effectively to achieve a specific communicative purpose, or when the hearer fails to recognize the intention or the illocutionary force of the speaker’s utterance in the context of communication

补充：音素、音位、音位变体的定义及关系

Explain with examples 3notions of phone, phoneme and allophone, how they are related.

⑴A phone is a speech sound, it is a phonetic unit. any sound we hear in the course of communication is a phone, such as [ u:],[ l ];

⑵A phoneme is a phonological unit, it’s not a concrete sound but an abstract notion, it’s a collection of features. it can be realized as different phones in different phonetic contexts. Such as ,the phoneme[ l ] can be realized as a clear[ l ] or a dark [ l ],depending on where it occurs in a sound combination.

⑶The actually phonetic realization of a phoneme are called its allophones, allophones are the actual phones we hear in linguistic communication.

Chapter9

Culture:

In a broad sense, culture means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community.

In a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can be mostly found in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture, etc.

There are generally two types of culture: material and spiritual.

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize experiences. This interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.

Strong version & weak version

Strong version belie ves that the language patterns determine people’s thinking and behavior; Weak version holds that the former influence the latter.

The study of the linguistic relativity or SWH has shed two important insights:

There is nowadays a recognition that language, as code, reflects cultural preoccupations and constrains the way people think.

More than in Whorf’s days, however, we recognize how important context is in complementing the meanings encoded in the language.

Chapter 10

Language acquisition

Language acquisition:refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.

Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH)

Eric Lenneberg argues that the LAD, like other biological functions, works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time: a specific and limited time period for language acquisition.

The strong version of CPH suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure.

The weak version holds that language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty. (Support in Victor’s and Genie’s cases)

Chapter11

Second Language Acquisition

Second Language Acquisition:

formally established itself as a discipline around the 1970s, refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.

Connections between first language acquisition and second language acquisition:

The first language study has served as a backcloth for perceiving and understanding new facts about second language learning (Littlewood, 1986).

SLA is different from first language acquisition.

Positive transfer: facilitate target language learning

Negative transfer: interfere or hinder target language learning

It is believed that differences between the native language and the target language would pose difficulties in second/foreign language learning and teaching, e.g.

*To touch the society .

*There are more people come to study in the states.

*I wait you at the gate of the school.

Errors & mistakes

Errors:unintentionally deviant from the target language and not self-corrigible by the learner (failure in competence)；

Mistakes:either intentionally or unintentionally deviant forms and self-corrigible (failure in performance).

Interlanguage (S. Pit Corder & Larry Selinker)

Interlangauge:learners’ independent system of the second language which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from his native language to the target language.

What learners produce, correct or wrong, are evidence or the approximation from their first language to the target language.

Krashen’s Input Hypothesis

Krashen make a distinction between acquisition & learning.

He put forward that learners advance their language learning gradually by receiving comprehensible input.

He defined comprehensible input as “i + 1” :

“i” represents learners’ current state of knowledge, the next stage is an “i + 1”.

Krashen mistook input and intake, thus receive criticism.

名词解释：

Linguistic Language

Phonology Phone Phoneme Allophone Morpheme

Derivational morpheme Inflectional morpheme

Syntax Semantics

Sense and Reference

Revision Exercises for Sociolinguistics I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Sociolinguistics is the sub-discipline of linguistics that studies social contexts。 2. Language as a means of social communication is a homogeneous system with a homogeneous group of speakers。 3. Language use varies from one speech community to another, from one regional group to another, from one social group to another, and even from one individual to another. 4. The goal of sociolinguistics is to explore the nature of language variation and language use among a variety of speech communities and in different social situations. 5. The linguistic markers that characterize individual social groups may serve as social markers of group membership. 6. From the sociolinguistic perspective, the term “speech variety ” can not be used to refer to standard language, vernacular language, dialect or pidgin。 speech varieties are known as regional dialects。 8. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its grammar and uses of vocabulary。 barriers are the only source of regional variation of language。 10. A person’s social backgrounds do not exert a shaping influence on his choice of linguistic features。 speakers of the same language or dialect use their language or dialect in the same way。 12. Every speaker of a language is, in a stricter sense, a speaker of a distinct idiolect. 13. The standard language is a better language than nonstandard languages。 14. A lingua franca can only be used within a particular country for communication among groups of people with different linguistic backgrounds。 are linguistically inferior to standard languages。

Chapter one Introduction 1.1什么是语言学 1.1.1定义 语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 1.1.2The scope of linguistics语言学分支必考P2 普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics.（语音学） The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音位学） The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学） The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax（句法学） The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学） The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学） 1.1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics 成对的概念辨析差异必考P3 （1）Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写 If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive. Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language

第二章理论与方法学 一、什么是语言变项?社会语言学是怎么调查语言变项和社会变项之间的共变关系的？请举例说明 1、语言变项和社会变项： 人们使用各种语言变体 地域方言和社会方言 说话人使用某些语言变项与其社会背景有关 研究者必须判定哪个社会变项与某个语言变项相关：地位，性别，年龄 （语言变项，社会语言学常用术语之一，英文为Linguistic variable，指语言变异的项目。语音、句法、词汇都可能成为语言变项。社会语言学奠基人拉波 夫所做的纽约语言调查，其中的（r）就是语言变项。一个语言变项一般包含几个“变式”，比如（r）变项包括两个变式，一个是（r）变式，第二个是零变式。又如北京话中零声母(w)，是一个变项，它有两个变式，一个是（w）,第二个是（v）。） 2、拉波夫（William Labov）的著名例子 car, card, fourth 语言变项：在元音前的辅音/r/发音或者不发音 社会变项：地位 结论：社会地位越高的人，越倾向于发出词语中的r音。

二、拉波夫（William Labov）对纽约[r]音的调查 拉波夫：探索语言变异的个别理论 纽约流行的r音 假设：假如纽约市本地人中有任何两个集团在社会分层的阶梯上处于高低不同的地位，那么他们在发[r]音上也会表现出相应的差异。 假设被证实：越是社会地位高的人，或越是正规的场合，就会有越高的卷舌率 语言变项：发r音/不发r音，w/v ，公交车/巴士 语言变项可选择音位、词素、句法、词语等各层次上的某个结构单位 语言变项的独特之处在于它同相应的社会变项发生有意义的共变。 60年代前半期拉波夫运用定量分析法研究语言变量与社会变量之间的关系拉波夫感觉到下层黑人倾向不发[r]音 做出假设：假如纽约市本地人中两个集团处于不同的社会阶层，那么他们在发[r]音上也会表现出相应的差异。 怎样证实这个假设呢？

英语语言学概论 期中作业 专业：英语（翻译）学号：20131311202 姓名：汤汪

第七章语言、文化与社会 1、语言与文化 (1)语言 语言有广义和狭义之分。 狭义的语言包括口头语言、书面语言和书面语的物质载体——文字。最狭义的语言不包括文字，只包括口语和书面语，口语和书面语是人类社会用来进行交际和思维的最重要、最常用、最发达、最严密的符号体系。 广义的语言不仅包括狭义语言，而且还包括准语言。准语言又称副语言、类语言，根据诉诸感官的不同，准语言又可分为听觉的（伴随声音、音乐语言、其他声响符号）、视觉的（表情、体态等；图表、公式等；绘画语言；舞蹈语言；蒙太奇语言；符号、标识语言；其他视觉符号）、触觉的（盲文等）三类。 广义的语言其实包括了人类用于交际的所有手段，因此可以将广义的语言定义为“人类使用的一切符号”。 (2)文化 文化是社会成员共同拥有的生活方式和为满足这些方式而共同创造的事事物物，以及基于这些方式而形成的心理和行为。 广义的文化可以分为物质文化、制度文化和心理文化三个层次。物质文化是一种可见的显性文化。制度文化和心理文化是不可见的隐性文化或曰潜在文化。 物质文化是指人类创造的种种物质文明。诸如生产和交通工具，武器，日用器具，服饰，居住、饮食和其他人类行为所需要的物品等等。 制度文化是指种种制度和理论体系。诸如饮食习惯、建筑工艺、卫生管理、娱乐方式等生活制度，婚姻形式、亲属关系、家庭财产分配等家庭制度，劳动管理、艺术生产、教育、道德、风俗、宗教、利益、法律、政治、警察、军队等社会制度，以及有关这些制度的各种理论体系。 心理文化包括思维方式、审美情趣、宗教信仰、价值观念等等，比之物质文化和制度文化，心理文化处于更深的层次上。 (3)语言与文化的关系 语言与文化相互依赖、相互影响.语言是文化的重要载体；文化对语言有制约作用.本文对语言的内在系统,从语言的形式和结构上作了分析,并对语言的社会功能和其它外在因素进行了探讨。 语言在人类的一切活动中都起着十分重要的作用,是人类社会生活不可缺少的一个部分。自古以来,语言学家们都试图从多方面对语言进行探讨,形成了许多语言学流派。归纳起来,现代语言学主要来源于两大传统：语文学传统和人类学传统。语文学传统从比较语言学和历史语言学开始,根据文学作品和书面文献的研究对语言进行分析和比较。19世纪语文学家的工作为现代语言学的独立研究奠定了基础,后来发展到布龙菲尔德的结构主义和乔姆斯基的转换生成语法。这一传统的继承者强调语言的自然属性,把语言看成是一个封闭的,独立的系统,把语言学看成是一门横跨人文科学和自然科学的独立的边缘科学。人类学传统指运用人类学方法去研究没有书写系统和文字传统的社会集团的语言。自20世纪初

广州大学 2012年研究生入学考试试题（全日制专业学位硕士） 招生领域：教育硕士 科目名称：语言学基础 科目代码：928 Ⅰ.Define the following terms (4 points each, 20%) 1. functional linguistics 2. minimal pair 3. consonant 4. syntax 5. synonymy Ⅱ. Indicate whether the following statements are true or false (1 point each, 10%) 1. In modern linguistic studies, the written form of language is given more emphasis than the spoken form for a number of reasons. 2. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English. 3. The part of a sentence which comprises an infinite verb or a verb phrase is grammatically called predicate. 4. The smallest meaningful unit of language is allomorph. 5. Human language is arbitrary. 6. All normal children have equal ability to acquire their first language. 7. In most cases, the illocutionary force of “freeze!” is a warning. 8. Linguistics is the course of language. 9. In English, pitch and length constitute intensity which seems to determine stress. 10. Tense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of meaning. 1

英语语言学复习资料 注: 1.试题类型为选择题,填空题,语料分析题和问答题. 2.未标习题的章节为一般了解. Chapter 1Language and Linguistics: An Overview 1.1 What is language? 1.2 Features of human languages (i) Creativity (or productivity) Productivity is the first and foremost striking feature of human language. _________ is the first and foremost striking feature of human language. A. Duality B. Arbitrariness C. Creativity D. Displacement (ii) Duality ( ) Language contains two subsystems, one of speaking and the other of writing. (iii) Arbitrariness ( ) The Swiss linguist de Saussure regarded the linguistic sign as composed of sound image and referent. (iv) Displacement ( ) Modern linguistics is prescriptive rather than descriptive. ( ) Language can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present or future. (v) Cultural transmission (vi) Interchangeability (vii) Reflexivity 1.3 Functions of language (i) The ideational function (ii) The interpersonal function (iii) The textual function Which of the following does not belong to the language metafunctions illustrated by

现代语言学考试复习要点 1. Definition of language Language is a system of arbitrary(随意的) vocal symbols used for human communication. . 2. microlinguistics and macrolinguistics microlinguistics: is concerned with the study of language or languages per se, not concern other field of study such as sociology, psychology, literature, computer science, etc. Macrolinguistics:is concerned with the study of language which involves other discipline (interdisciplinary) sociolinguistics: Psycholinguistics: Applied linguistics: 3 langue and parole(语言和言语) 由Swiss linguist F. de Saussure 提出的Langue r efers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.(conventions and rules; abstract; relatively stable;) Parole refers to the realization of a langue in actual use.(the concrete use of the conventions and rules; concrete, refers to the naturally occurring language events; varies from person to person, situation to situation) 区别的目的：parole is simple a mass of linguistic facts, too varied and confusing for systematic investigation and what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole(发现规律)。4．competence and performance(能力和运用)： American linguist A. Chomsky proposed in the late 1950s. Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 犯错误的原因是：though internalized, but with social and psychological factors such as stress, anxiety and embarrassment. . 5．prescriptive VS descriptive(规定性和描述性): descriptive: describes and analyses the language people actually use, // descriptive is a distinctive feature in modern linguistic studies. prescriptive:aims to lay down rules for ‘correct’behaviour(what

2019广州大学考研619汉语综合考试与827阅读与写 作复习全析（含真题） 《2019广州大学考研619汉语综合考试复习全析（含历年真题，共三册）》由鸿知广大考研网依托多年丰富的教学与辅导经验，组织官方教学研发团队与广州大学优秀研究生共同合作编写而成。全书内容紧凑权威细致，编排结构科学合理，为参加2019广州大学考研的考生量身定做的必备专业课资料。 《2019广州大学考研619汉语综合考试复习全析（含历年真题）》全书编排根据广州大学考研参考书目： 1．《语言学纲要》，叶蜚声、徐通锵，北京大学。 2、《现代汉语》（增订版），黄伯荣、廖序东主编，高等教育出版社。 3、《古代汉语》，王力主编，中华书局。 结合提供的往年广大考研真题内容，帮助报考广州大学考研的同学通过广大教材章节框架分解、配套的课后/经典习题讲解及相关985、211名校考研真题与解答，帮助考生梳理指定教材的各章节内容，深入理解核心重难点知识，把握考试要求与考题命题特征。 通过研读演练本书，达到把握教材重点知识点、适应多样化的专业课考研命题方式、提高备考针对性、提升复习效率与答题技巧的目的。同时，透过测试演练，以便查缺补漏，为初试高分奠定坚实基础。 适用院系： 人文学院：语言学及应用语言学、汉语言文字学 资料选购适用科目：

619汉语综合考试（自命题） 本书包括以下几个部分内容： Part 1 - 考试重难点与笔记： 通过总结和梳理《现代汉语》（黄伯荣增订五版）、《古代汉语》（王力校订重排本）、《语言学纲要》（叶蜚声、徐通锵北大修订版）各章节复习和考试的重难点，建构教材宏观思维及核心知识框架，浓缩精华内容，令考生对各章节内容考察情况一目了然，从而明确复习方向，提高复习效率。该部分通过归纳各章节要点及复习注意事项，令考生提前预知章节内容，并指导考生把握各章节复习的侧重点。 Part 2 - 教材配套课后/经典习题与解答 针对教材《现代汉语》（黄伯荣增订五版）经典课后习题配备详细解读，以供考生加深对教材基本知识点的理解掌握，做到对广大考研核心考点及参考书目内在重难点内容的深度领会与运用。 Part 3 - 名校考研真题详解汇编： 根据教材内容和考试重难点，精选本专业课考试科目相关的名校考研真题，通过研读参考配套详细答案检测自身水平，加深知识点的理解深度，并更好地掌握考试基本规律，全面了解考试题型及难度。 Part 4 - 广州大学历年考研真题： 汇编广大考研专业课考试科目的2014-2017年考研真题试卷，方便考生检查自

英语语言学 一、名词解释 第一课 l.Synchronic 共时性：Said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “poinL in timeA A kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind? 2>Langue 语言：The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community? 3>Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication. ^Arbitrariness 任意性：One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 第二课 1.Phoneme 音位：Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning? The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 2Deep structure 深层结构：Formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure or D? structure? 4.Surface structure 表层结构：Corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called Surface structure or S- structure. 第五课 LReference 指称：Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experienee. 2.Homonymy 同音异义：Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both? 3?Hyponymy 上下义关系：Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word? 第六课 l.Pragmatics 语用学：Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.

第十二章现代语言学理论与流派 复习笔记 I.索绪尔和现代语言学 现代语言学始于瑞士语言学家索绪尔，他被称为“现代语言学之父”和一位“使语言学走向现代的大师”。 索绪尔认为，语言是用声音表达交流思想的符号系统。符号是形式和意义的联合，是表示者和被表示者的结合。符号是语言事实的核心，研究语言必须从符号本身的特性人手。 索绪尔区分了几组重要的概念：能指和所指，语言和言语，共时研究和历时研究等。 II．布拉格学派 布拉格学派的形成可以追溯到马泰休斯领导召开的该学派的第一次会议。1．主要观点及贡献 布拉格学派的研究有三大重点： (1)强调共时研究的合理性，因为它可以提供完整且易掌控的研究材料。 (2)强调语言的系统性，指出任何语言单位都不能在孤立的的情况下得到令人满意的分析及评估。换句话说，语言单位处于功能对比、对立之中。 (3)它将语言看作是在所属语言群体中发挥一系列功能的工具。 2．功能句子观 功能句子观是一套语言学分析理论，它是指用信息论的原理来分析话语或文本。其基本原则就是一句话中各部分起的作用取决于它对全句意义的贡献。 一些捷克语言学家尝试从功能的角度来分析句子。他们相信一个句子包含话

语的出发点和话语的目的。话语的出发点叫做主位，它是说话人和听话人都知道的信息；话语的目的是说话人要向听话人传递的信息，叫做述位。从主位到述位的运动揭示了大脑本身的运动。 功能句子观旨在研究话语中新(未知)、旧 (已知)信息的分布问题。已知信息指那些对于听话人不再是新信息的部分；新信息是即将向听话人传达的信息。句子中主语一谓语的分布不总是与主位一述位的分布一致。 3．交际能力 另一种版本的分析法叫做交际能力，由费尔巴斯提出。他用交际动力表示句子成分对交际发展所起的作用。 费尔巴斯把功能句子观解释为不同程度的交际力的分布。他认为，句子前面部分承载的交际力最低，然后逐步增加，直到交际力最大的成分。 Ⅲ．伦敦学派 1．介绍 伦敦学派专门用来称呼独具英国特色的语言学研究。弗斯使语言学在英国完全成为一门公认的科学。弗斯主要受人类学家马林诺夫斯基影响，而后他又影响了他的学生韩礼德。三人都强调“语言环境”和语言“系统”的重要性。因此，伦敦学派也被称为系统语言学和功能语言学。 2．马林诺夫斯基的理论 (1)语言是一种行为模式，而不是什么与思想相对应的东西。 (2)话语意义并不来源于构成话语的词的意义，而是来源于话语发生的上下义之间的关系。其断言是根据两大观察结果得出的： ①在原始社会团体中，书写并不存在，语言只有一种使用方法。 在所有人类社会中，孩子以此种方法习得语言。

2010 916 Part I Multiple Choice Questions (40marks,2marks each) Directions: Read the following statements carefully and choose the best answer from the four alternatives. Put your choices on the Answer Sheet. ( ) 1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human . A. contact B. communication C. relation D. community ( ) 2. which brand of linguistics studies the meanings of language? A. phonetics B. syntax C. semantics D. phonology ( ) 3. which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds? A. acoustic phonetics B. articulatory phonetics C. auditory phonetics D. none of the above ( ) 4. in English ise and tion are called . A. prefixes B. suffixes C. infixes D. free morphemes ( ) 5. is a field of linguistics that studies the sentences structure of language. A. morphology B. syntax C. pragmatics D. applied linguistics ( ) 6. cold and hot are a pair of antonyms. A. gradable B. complementary C. reversal D. converseness ( ) 7. speech act theory was proposed by in 1962. A. Saussure B. Austin C. Chomsky D. Grimm ( ) 8. is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings. A. competence B. performance C. learning D. acquisition ( ) 9. which description of the meaning components of the word mother is correct? A. +human, +adult, male B. +human, adult, +male C. human, +adult, male D. +human, +adult, +male ( ) 10. most of the violations of the maxims of the cooperative principle give rise to . A.breakdown of conversation B. confusion of one s intention C.hostility between speakers and listeners D.conversational implicatures ( ) 11. according to sequential rules in English, which of the following combinations of sounds is not possible in English? A. bilk B. blik C. kilb D. lbki ( ) 12. /p/ and /b/ can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, therefore they are . A. in phonemic contrast B. in complementary distribution C. a minimal pair D. allophones ( ) 13. is regarded as the founder of modern linguistics. A. Searle B. Chomsky C. Austin D. Saussure ( ) 14. the fact that children acquire spoken language before they can read or write indicates that language is primarily . 1

一、填空 Chapter 5 1. One difficulty in the study of Meaning is that the word “meaning” itself has different meanings. In their book The Meaning of Meaning written in 1923, C.K. Ogden and I.A. Richards presented a “representative list of the main definitions which reputable students of meaning have favoured”. 2. G.Leechin a more moderate tone recognizes 7 types of meaning in his Semantics, first published in 1974. 3. There are generally three kinds of sense relations recognized, namely, sameness relation, oppositeness relation and inclusiveness relation. Chomsky’ of Syntactic Structure(1957) helped to ignite the cognitive revolution. 5. The exist three approaches to the study of language and cognition: the formal approach, the psychological approach and the conceptural approach. 6. The most important research subjects are acquisition, comprehension and production. 7.From a psychological point of view, we store a great deal of information about the properties of words in our mental lexicon心理词库, and retrieve this information when we understand language. 8.Similarity and frequency both play important roles in processing and comprehending language, with the novel items being processed based on their similarity to the known ones. 9.According to cohort model集群理论proposed by Marslen- wilson and Welsh in 1990. Chapter 7 *四个代表人物 10.Malinowski马林洛夫斯基claimed that” In its primitive uses, language functions as a link in concerted human activity…” 11.Firth福斯,a leading figure in a linguistic tradition later known as the London School, tried to...In the end, he developed his own theory of Context of Situation. 12.M.A.K. Halliday韩礼德，whose contributions to sociolinguistics could be …. , and his linguistic model in the study of literature. 13. Eugene Nida尤金奈达, a well-known linguist and traditional theorist, concerning the relationship between language and culture. 14.Hypothesis has alternatively been referred to as linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity. 15. Cross-cultural communication跨文化交际中，there are five types of sub-culture 五种次文化形态we should be fully aware of: (1)ecological culture (2)linguistic culture (3)religious culture (4)material culture (5)social culture.[Nida,1964] 16.During the whole 20th century, a great deal of efforts has been taken to treat the inquiry of linguistics as a monistic一元观or autonomous pursuit自治性of an independent science. Chapter 8